C. ninth-eighth century b. c.e.
The Greek epics the Odyssey and the Iliad emerge and are credited to Homer; various tribal names are cited, such as Achaeans, Aeolians, Dorians, and Ionians.
C. late ninth-mid-eighth centuries b. c.e.
Phoenicians found the city of Carthage in North Africa.
C. 800 B. C.E.
Greeks begin to colonize Sicily c. eighth century b. c.e.
The disorders of the Dark Ages come to an end and the Greeks begin to found city-states; they rediscover writing, using the Phoenician alphabet.
Phoenicians establish trading colonies among the Iberians of the coastal Iberian Peninsula.
Etruscans expand their trade routes southward on the Italian peninsula.
The Scythians reach Europe from the Asian steppes, arriving in the territory of the Cimmerians.
Eighth-fifth century B. C.E.
The Archaic Age occurs in Greece.
Eighth century B. C.E.
The Olympic Games held at Olympia, the Pythian games at Delphi, the Nemean games at Nemea, and the Isthmian games at Corinth have major importance.
772 B. C.E.
The Assyrians conquer the kingdom of Israel.
753 B. C.E.
According to legend Rome is founded by Latins and Sabines. c. 750 B. C.E.
The Etruscans form a loose confederation of city-states.
736-716 B. C.E.
Spartans capture Messenia (southwestern Greece).
733 B. C.E.
Greeks from Corinth found Syracuse on Sicily c. 720-714 B. C.E.
The Cimmerians Invade Asia Minor.
Seventh or sixth century b. c.e.
Celtic tribes migrate to the Iberian Peninsula.
660 B. C.E.
Greeks found Byzantium (on the site of later Constantinople); it serves as a trading center with the Thracians and Scythians.
C. 630 B. C.E.
Greeks establish trading colonies among the Iberians.
621 or 620 b. c.e.
Exceptionally severe laws called the Draconian Code are implemented in Athens; the death penalty is specified for every manner of crime; although these are not the first rules of law written and implemented, they are thought to be the first codes comprehensively recorded.
Late seventh century b. c.e.
Greeks found coastal cities among the Illyrians of the eastern Adriatic coast.
600 B. C.E.
Greeks found the trading center of Massalia (modern Marseilles) among the Celts of southern France.
Sixth century b. c.e.
Greeks extend their trade to the Black Sea region, having contacts with Caucasians.
Rome emerges as a city-state under Etruscan influence.
586 B. C.E.
The Babylonians out of Mesopotamia conquer Judah and destroy the Temple at Jerusalem, beginning the 50-year-long period of their rule, known as the Babylonian Captivity, in which many Jewish leaders are exiled; this and the subsequent scattering of the Jews, many of them to Europe, becomes known as the Diaspora.
C. 509
The Romans adopt a republican form of government.
490-479
The Persian Wars are fought between allied Greek city-states and Persia. fifth century b. c.e.
The Etruscans established trade routes across the Alps in the Rhine-Moselle region.
C. 493 B. C.E.
The Romans sign a treaty with the Latin League.
480-323 B. C.E.
The period designated as the Classical Age occurs in Greece. c. 478 B. C.E.
The first Delian League is founded by Athens and Ionian city-states in Asia Minor.
460 B. C.E.
Pericles gains rule of Athens; his period of power, with economic and cultural flourishing among Athens and other city-states of the Delian League, lasts until his death in 429 b. c.e.
Mid-fifth century b. c.e.
Carthaginian Himilco explores Atlantic coast of Europe. c. 443 B. C.E.
Greek historian Herodotus begins work on his History describing the geography of the known world in Europe, Asia, and Africa, including information on peoples and cultures.
431-404 B. C.E.
Athens and Sparta fight the Peloponnesian War, with Sparta victorious. 409 B. C.E.
The Carthaginians gain a foothold in Sicily c. late fifth century b. c.e.
The Carthaginians establish trading contacts with the Iberians. c. late fifth-early fourth centuries b. c.e.
Celtic tribes cross the Alps into northern Italy and occupy territory, especially along the Po Valley
C. fourth century b. c.e.
The Sarmatians arrive on Scythian territory in the Caucasus.
390 or 387 b. c.e.
Celts besiege Rome and lay waste to the surrounding countryside.
358 B. C.E.
The Macedonians under Philip II campaign against the Illyrians.
The Latin League is reorganized under Roman leadership.
343-341 B. C. E.
The Romans drive back the Samnites in the First Samnite War.
341 B. C.E.
Italic tribes of the Latin League revolt against the Romans, who dissolve the league in 338 b. c.e.
338 B. C.E.
The Macedonians under Philip II defeat allied Greek city-states. 336-335 B. C.E.
The Macedonians under Alexander III (the Great) consolidate rule in Illyria and Greece; Alexander receives a delegation of Celts.
332 B. C.E.
Alexander the Great founds the city of Alexandria in North Africa; in
333 B. C.E. he defeats the Persian King Darius I.
326-304 B. C.E.
The Romans defeat the Samnites and their allies in the Second Samnite War, but sporadic resistance follows.
C. 325 B. C.E.
Greek scholar and navigator Pytheas sails through the Strait of Gibraltar Into the Atlantic Ocean and explores coastal Europe, including the British Isles.
312-264 B. C.E.
The most important of the Roman roads, the Appian Way is constructed enabling easy access through Italic lands.
Third century b. c.e.
Celts migrate to Asia Minor.
The Romans conquer Gallia Cisalpina.
298-295 B. C.E.
The Romans fight the Samnites and their allies in the Third Samnite War, gaining final victory at Sentinum in 295 b. c.e.
279 B. C.E.
The Galatoi (Celts) invade the Balkan Peninsula.
264-241 B. C.E.
The Romans and Carthaginians fight the First Punic War; Carthage is forced to give up holdings in Sicily
238 B. C.E.
The Romans annex Sardinia.
237 B. C.E.
The Carthaginians occupy part of the Iberian Peninsula; in 227 b. c.e. they found New Carthage (Cartagena).
218-201 B. C.E.
The Romans and Carthaginians fight the Second Punic War; in 218 b. c.e. Carthaginian general Hannibal leads an army from Spain over the Alps into Italy; in 202 b. c.e. Hannibal suffers a major defeat at Zama in North Africa; Carthage is forced to give up territory in Spain.
215-205 B. C.E.
The Macedonians defeat the Romans in the First Macedonian War. 200-197 B. C.E.
The Romans defeat the Macedonians in the Second Macedonian War. 197 B. C.E.
The Romans establish colonies on the Iberian Peninsula.
195-190 B. C.E.
The Lusitani revolt against the Romans on the Iberian Peninsula; other revolts occurs in 154-150 b. c.e. and 147-139 b. c.e.
171-168 B. C.E.
The Romans defeat the Macedonians in the Third Macedonian War. 168-167 B. C.E.
The Romans defeat the Illyrians and capture Scodra.
167 B. C.E.
The Jews under the Maccabees revolt against Greek rule over Judah.
149-148 B. C.E.
The Romans defeat the Macedonians in the Fourth Macedonian War; Macedonia becomes a province of Rome in 146 b. c.e.
149-146 B. C.E.
The Romans and Carthaginians fight the Third Punic War; in 146 b. c.e. the Romans sack Carthage.
133 B. C.E.
The Romans begin to conquer Greek city-states.
102-101 B. C.E.
The Teutones and Cimbri, migrating Germanic tribes from northern Europe, are defeated by the Romans under Gaius Marius in southern France.
90-88 B. C.E.
Italic tribes seek equality with the Romans in the Social War, in 90-87 b. c.e. various tribes are granted Roman citizenship.
86 B. C.E.
Athens is sacked by the Romans under Lucius Cornelius Sulla.
80-73 B. C.E.
The Lusitani revolt against the Romans under the Roman expatriate Quintus Sertorius; they are pacified by troops under Julius Caesar in 61 b. c.e.
73-71 B. C.E.
Spartacus, a Thracian, leads a slave revolt against the Romans in the Gladiatorial War; despite early victories it ends in defeat.
C. 71 B. C.E.
The Suebi and other Germanic tribes under Ariovistus cross the Rhine and attack the Celtic Aedui; they are defeated by the Romans under Julius Caesar in 58 b. c.e.
67 B. C.E.
The Romans annex the island of Crete.
63 B. C.E.
The Romans under Pompey conquer Judah and established the province of Palestine, with Judea as the southern division.
C. 60 B. C.E.
The Dacians under Burebista begin expansion from west of the Black Sea into Hungary and defeat Celtic tribes, the Boii, Scordisci, and Taurisci.
58 B. C.E.
The Helvetii, a Celtic tribe out of Switzerland, attempt to migrate to France until driven back by the Romans under Julius Caesar.
57-56 B. C.E.
The Romans under Julius Caesar battle Celtic tribes of northern and western Gaul.
55-53 B. C.E.
Julius Caesar leads a Roman force across the Rhine into territory of Germanic tribes; he leads two military expeditions to Britain, encountering tribes of Britons; he pacifies the Celtic tribes of northern Gaul.
52 B. C.E.
Vercingetorix of the Arverni leads united tribes of Gauls in a revolt against the Romans; it is suppressed by Julius Caesar.
50 B. C.E.
The Romans pacify the last resisting Gauls; in 49 b. c.e. Julius Caesar confers Roman citizenship on pacified inhabitants of Gallia Cisalpina.
48 B. C.E.
Julius Caesar defeats Pompey at Pharsala, becoming master of Rome and ending the republic; he is assassinated in 44 b. c.e.
35-33 B. C.E.
The Romans defeat the southern Illyrians.
29 B. C.E.
The Romans build a new city at Carthage.
The Romans defeat the Bastarnae, the easternmost of the Germanic tribes. 27 B. C.E.
Augustus becomes, in effect, emperor of Rome and reorganizes Gaul into three provinces—Gallia Belgica, Galli Lugdunensis (Gallia Celtica), and Gallia Aquitania—based on Julius Caesar’s classifications of tribes.
19 B. C.E.
The Celtiberians, after a two-century-long sporadic resistance against Roman occupation of the Iberian Peninsula, are pacified.
17 B. C.E.
The Romans establish trade contacts with the Caucasians.
12-7 B. C.E.
The Romans take control of Germanic territory east of the Rhine.
6-9 C. E.
The Romans suppress an Illyrian revolt and found Illyricum.
9 C. E.
The Cherusci, Chauci, and Marci—Germanic tribes allied under Arminius—defeat the Romans at Teutoburger Wald, forcing the Roman frontier back from the Elbe to the Rhine.
16 C. E.
The Romans under Tiberius stop campaining across the Rhine, establishing the river as the empire’s northeastern bounary
17 C. E.
The Cherusci defeat the Marcomanni. c. 23 C. E.
Greek scholar Strabo completes his 17-volume Geography, describing the known world, including information on peoples and cultures.
43 C. E.
A Roman army under Emperor Claudius I invades Britain; in 48 c. e. the Romans invade Wales; in 50 c. e. they found Londinium (London).
51 C. E.
Caractacus of the Catuvellauni, a tribe of Britons, leads an unsuccessful resistance against the Romans in Britain; he seeks refuge with the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, turns him over to the Romans.
52 C. E.
The Silures defeat a Roman legion.
60-61 C. E.
Queen Boudicca of the Iceni, a tribe of Britons, leads an unsuccessful revolt against the Romans in Britain.
69-70 C. E.
A Roman cohort of Batavi with fellow Germanics from among the Sugambri mount an unsuccessful revolt against the Romans.
77 C. E.
Roman scholar Pliny the Elder publishes the encyclopedia Historia Naturalis (Natural History).
79 C. E.
The Italian city of Pompeii is destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. 79-85 C. E.
Roman general Gnaeus Julius Agricola campaigns in Scotland, defeating northern tribes known to the Romans as Caledonians at Mons Graupius in 84 b. c.e.
C. 98 C. E.
Roman historian Cornelius Tacitus publishes two works: De Vita lulii Agricolae (Life of Agricola) and De origine et situ Germanorum (Concerning the origin and location of the Germans) about Germanics and other peoples, such as the Fenni, probably Finno-Ugrians, and Aestii, probably Balts; and De Vita Iulii Agricolae (Life of Agricola) about his father-in-law, Gnaeus Julius Agricola.
98-117 C. E.
The Roman Empire reaches its greatest extent under Trajan.
101-106 C. E.
The Romans campaign against the Dacians in the First Dacian Wars and Second Dacian Wars; in 107 the Romans create the province of Dacia.
122 C. E.
Roman emperor Hadrian tours Britain and orders the building of Hadrian’s Wall.
127-147 C. E.
Alexandrian historian Ptolemy publishes the eight-volume Geographia, identifying European peoples.
142 C. E.
The Romans build the Antonine Wall in Britain north of Hadrian’s Wall, the northernmost extent of the empire.
166-180 C. E.
The Romans drive back the Germanic Marcomanni, Quadi, and other allies from the provinces of Pannonia and Dacia in the Marcomannic Wars.
238
The Gothic confederacy begins raiding the lower Danube region.
Mid-third century
The Franks live as two distinct groups, Rlpuarlan Franks and Sallan Franks, along the Rhine River.
C. 250-280
Germanic tribes carry out attacks on the Roman Empire from across the Rhine-Danube frontier.
260
Incursions by the Germanic confederacy known as the Alamanni cause the Romans to abandon the frontier system along the Rhine and Danube Rivers.
260-273
Inhabitants of Gaul, Spain, and Britain form a Gallic empire independent from Rome.
267-268
The Goths plunder Athens; in 269 they are defeated by the Romans.
271
The Romans abandon the province of Dacia, probably leaving Latinspeaking peoples behind.
273
Emperor Aurelian reclaims Gaul for Rome.
275
The Alamanni, Goths, and Vandals overrun part of the Roman province of Dacia, defeating the Sarmatians.
278
The Burgundii move across the Danube but are repulsed by Roman forces. c. 290
The Goths separate into groups that evolve into the Ostrogoths and Visigoths.
Fourth century
Irish Celts, such as the Dal Riata, migrate to Scotland and battle for territory with the Picts.
313
Roman emperor Constantine I issues the Edict of Milan, tolerating Christianity within the Roman Empire.
330
Constantine I changes the name of Byzantium to Constantinople (modern Istanbul), the new capital of the Roman Empire.
332
The Visigoths sign a formal treaty with the Romans, agreeing to stay out of Greece.
370s
The Huns out of central Asia accompanied by Bulgars reach the Black Sea, beginning the conquest and displacement of various European peoples, including the Goths and Alans; the Ostrogoths and Heruli become their principal allies.
Roman emperor Valens is killed by the Visigoths and allied Alans at the Battle of Adrianople (modern Edirne, Turkey).
395
The Roman Empire is divided into the Eastern Roman and Western Roman territories under two emperors.
406
The Vandals, Suebi, and Alans cross the Rhine in an invasion of Roman Gaul; in 409 they invade the Iberian Peninsula.
410
The Visigoths under Alaric sack Rome.
Roman troops and government officials withdraw from Britain.
412-414
The Visigoths under Ataulf are granted territory in Roman Gaul; from there they expand into Spain.
413
The Burgundii create a kingdom along the Rhine River with a capital at Worms, the first Germanic kingdom within the old Roman imperial frontier; in 443 they establish a second kingdom along the Rhctne River, with a capital at Geneva.
429
The Vandals under Gaiseric, under pressure from the Visigoths, enter North Africa from Spain; by 439 they seize Carthage from Roman control; in 440 they mount an invasion of Sicily.
433
St. Patrick begins preaching in Ireland.
434
Attila and his brother Bleda come to power among the Huns; c. 445 Attila becomes sole ruler.
440-446
The Huns carry out raids in the Balkans.
443
The Alamanni settle in Alsace, soon seizing territory in Switzerland. fifth-sixth centuries
The Angles, Frisians, Jutes, and Saxons—Germanic tribes out of northern Europe—occupy parts of Britain; the kingdom Kent, founded by the Jutes, rises to dominance in the late sixth century.
451
The Huns and allied tribes under Attila invade Roman Gaul; they are defeated by allied Romans and Visigoths in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains south of modern Chalons-sur-Marne in northeastern France.
453
Attila the Hun dies; in 455 his sons are defeated by allied Germanic tribes; the Hunnic Empire breaks up as the Huns disperse.
455
The Vandals and allied Alans under Gaiseric sack Rome.
The Bulgars settle northwest of the Black Sea.
469
The Ostrogoths defeat the Sclrl.
476
The Sciri, Heruli, and Rugii, Germanic tribes led by Odoacer, capture Ravenna, the capital of the Western Roman Empire, causing the deposition of the last Western emperor, Romulus Augustus. (This date is cited as the beginning of the Middle Ages.)
486
The Franks under Clovis I capture the last Roman outposts in Gaul.
487
The Heruli and Sciri defeat the Rugii.
488-489
The Ostrogoths under Theodoric defeat the Gepids as well as the Sciri and allied tribes under Odoacer; in 493 after a period of joint rule of Italy with Odoacer, Theodoric assassinates Odoacer to become sole ruler.
496
The Franks under Clovis I defeat the Alamanni; Clovis I converts to Christianity about this time.
C. late fifth century
Slavic peoples possibly are living on the northeastern flank of the Carpathian Mountains.
C. 500
The Komi, a Finnic people of eastern Europe, split into various groups, some migrating away from the Kama River.
507
The Franks under Clovis I defeat the Visigoths.
508
The Lombards defeat the Heruli; the Heruli disperse. c. 518
Allied Britons defeat the Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of Mons Badonicus in Britain (according to possibly mythical accounts).
520-550s
Slavs from the north bank of the lower Danube carry out raids into Byzantine territory to the south.
531-534
The Franks defeat the Thuringi and the Burgundii.
533-553
Justinian I wages war against the Vandals, Ostrogoths, and Visigoths, expanding the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) to its greatest extent, including Carthage in North Africa; the Byzantines regain control of Italy in 552.
C. 540
Roman statesman Cassiodorus writes Historia Gothica (History of the Goths); the original manuscript is lost but Jordanes’s abridgment of it, published in 551, De origine actibusque Getarum (also known as Getica), survives.
Mid to late sixth century
Slavic tribes reach Moravia, Bohemia, and Poland The Anglo-Saxons begin to establish kingdoms in Britain.
559-561
The Avars, originally out of Asia, reach the lower Danube; they disperse the Bulgars; by the late sixth century the Avar Empire is at its height.
567
The Lombards and Avars, with the complicity of the Byzantines, defeat the Gepids.
568
The Lombards under Alboin invade Italy; in 572 Alboin founds Lombardy.
570-602
Avars and Slavs attack coastal towns on the Adriatic, Aegean, and Black Seas, until driven back temporarily by the Byzantines; the Slavs settle the Balkans in the seventh century.
590-604
Pope Gregory I reforms the Catholic Church.
597
St. Columba converts Pictish king Brude to Christianity; St. Augustine converts Anglo-Saxon king Aethelberht, and the church of Canterbury is founded.
Seventh century
Arabs take all of Byzantine Africa and much of eastern territory.
605
The Byzantines cede Lombards much territory in northern Italy.
623
Frankish merchant Samo leads the Slavs in a successful revolt against the Avars on the middle Danube and creates a kingdom, staying in power until 658.
626
The Avars attack Constantinople and are repelled.
679
The Western Bulgars come to power in Bulgaria, the start of the First Bulgarian Empire; in 680 they overrun Slavic lands in the Balkans; in 681, they defeat the Byzantines, preserving their territory.
685
The Picts of Scotland defeat an army of Anglo-Saxons from Northumbria.
The Khazars drive the Arabs from the northern Caucasus region.
698
Arab forces seize control of Carthage.
Eighth century
The Khazars are dominant In western Russia and Ukraine.
The Picts attain their height of power.
Eighth-ninth centuries
Various Caucasic and Turkic peoples of the Caucasus region adopt Islam. 711
The Moors (Arabs and Berbers) under Tarik ibn Ziyad invade the Iberian Peninsula and defeat the Visigoths.
720s
The Carantanians founded a state known as Carantania or Karantania; it is conquered by the Franks in 787.
731
Anglo-Saxon historian the Venerable Bede publishes Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People).
732
The Franks under Charles Martel defeat the Moors at Tours in southern France, pushing them back into Spain; Charles Martel becomes secular leader of Christendom in the West.
737
Itil on the lower Volga becomes the capital of the Khazars.
751
Pepin III deposes Childeric III, the last Merovingian ruler, and becomes the first king of the Carolingian Franks.
772- 804
The Franks under Charlemagne wage campaigns against the Saxons.
773- 774
Charlemagne defeats the Lombards in Italy; Charlemagne is crowned king of the Lombards.
778
Charlemagne invades Muslim Spain, capturing Barcelona.
785
The Franks under Charlemagne defeat the Frisians.
790s
Vikings out of Scandinavia raid Scotland, Ireland, and France.
796-805
The Franks under Charlemagne campaign against and defeat the Avars. ninth century
Tribes in the Baltic region—Balts and Finno-Ugrians—coalesce into groups that become part of the historic record.
Rascia, the first Serbian state, is formed in the mountains of Bosnia.
800
Charlemagne of the Franks is crowned emperor of the West, an event that is claimed as the birth of the Holy Roman Empire.
800-950
Groups known as Domba, ancestors of the Rroma (Gypsies) migrate from northern India westward.
804
The Franks under Charlemagne defeat the mainland Saxons.
830
Magyar and Khazar clans unite into a tribal confederation.
843
Kenneth I MacAlpin, king of the Scots, creates the kingdom of Alba, which includes the Picts (Alba evolves into Scotland).
The Treaty of Verdun partitions the Frankish Empire among Charlemagne’s three grandsons as three kingdoms.
858
Vikings sail through the Strait of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean Sea. c. mid-ninth century
Novgorod, an important trading center, is founded probably by Viking traders.
863
Cyril and Methodius, Eastern Orthodox Christian missionaries, travel to Moravia to convert the population.
860s
The Vikings settle in the Faeroe Islands from where they expand overseas.
865
Boris I of the Western Bulgars converts to Christianity. c. 870
Moravia is recognized as an independent kingdom by the Franks. c. 870-c. 930
The Vikings colonize Iceland.
871
Alfred assumes the Wessex throne; in the next years, he successfully defends England against Danish armies, defeating them, at Edington in 878, creating the danelaw in 880 (Danish territory in England), and recapturing London from them in 886.
C. 876-879
Several provinces ruled by Croats unite to form a state.
877
The Duchy of Burgundy is founded.
882
Kiev, ruled by the Rus, becomes the capital of the principality of Kievan Rus, united with Novgorod.
C. 895
The Magyars under Arpad settle in Hungary.
Late ninth century
Harold I Falrhalr unites much of Norway.
10 th century
The Pechenegs control territory north of the Black Sea in Ukraine and Russla.
C. 906-907
The Magyars defeat the Moravians; the state of Moravia is dissolved; freed of Moravian dominance, the Bohemian state rises to power.
907
Oleg of the Rus leads an alliance of Eastern Slavic tribes in an unsuccessful attack on Constantinople.
911
Rollo of the Vikings founds Normandy; a lineage of Normans is started.
912
Vikings are recorded as having reached the Caspian Sea by way of eastern Europe.
922
The Eastern Bulgars convert to Islam and found a state.
925
King Tomislav is crowned first king of Croatia by decree of the Roman Catholic Church.
930
The Althing, an annual parliament, is established in Iceland; the Republic of Iceland forms.
955
German forces under King Otto I defeat the Magyars on the Lechfeld. 962
Otto I of Germany is crowned emperor (of what is to become known as the Holy Roman Empire) by Pope John XII, in effect becoming the first Holy Roman Emperor.
963
Luxembourg is founded as an independent entity 965
The Rus defeat the Khazars.
966
Mieszko I of the Polanians is christened Catholic; during this period he campaigns against and gains hegemony over other Slavic tribes in the Oder-Vistula region.
968
The Pechenegs attack Constantinople and are repelled.
980-1015
Vladimir I establishes dynastic seniority of his clan over all the territories of the Rus and spreads Eastern Orthodoxy.
11th century
Albanians migrate southward into Greece, where they become known as Arvanites; others end up in Greek territory because of changing boundaries; migrations continue over the centuries.
1000
Stephen I is anointed first king of Hungary.
Boleslaw I is anointed first king of Poland.
Rroma are recorded as living in Persia, Turkey, and Greece.
1018
The weakened Bulgarian Empire is annexed by the Byzantines. 1018-1035
The Danish king Canute the Great rules a kingdom that includes Denmark, Norway, Southern Sweden, and England.
1036
The Rus defeat the Pechenegs.
1054
The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) breaks with the Roman Catholic Church.
1057
Gruffudd ap Llwelyn unites the kingdoms of Wales.
1064
The Cumans defeat the Pechenegs.
1066
The Normans defeat the Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of Hastings; William I the Conqueror is crowned king of England.
1086
The Domesday Book, a report on the Norman’s economy, is published. 1096-1099
The First Crusade to the Near East is undertaken by Christian forces, culminating in the capture of Jerusalem from the Seljuk Turks.
12th century
The Kipchaks are dominant on the eastern European steppes and in the northern Caucasus.
1130
Roger II of the Normans creates the kingdom of Sicily, which includes Sicily as well as Norman possessions in southern Italy.
1139
Portugal becomes independent from Castile and Leon; Alfonso Henriques proclaims himself Alfonso I, the first king of Portugal.
1147-1149
The Second Crusade to the Near East is undertaken.
1160
Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, defeats Slavic tribes in northern Germany near the Baltic Sea, after which German settlers and missionaries settle the region.
C. 1167
Stephen Nemanja founds the Nemanjlc dynasty In Serbia.
1185-1186
The Western Bulgars revolt against the Byzantines and create the Second Bulgarian Empire.
1189-1192
The Third Crusade to the Near East is undertaken.
1198
The first crusade to the Baltic region is sanctioned; in 1202 Bishop Albert von Buxhoevden establishes the military and religious order Brothers of the Sword to Christianize Baltic lands.
1201
The Germans found the city of Riga in Latvia.
1202
The French defeat the Normans and gain control of Normandy.
1204
Crusaders sack Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade, the occupiers found the Latin Empire of Constantinople.
1215
King John of England signs the Magna Carta, establishing the concept that royal power is not absolute.
1236-1238
Mindaugas begins uniting the Lithuanian tribes, including the Lithuanians and Samogitians.
1237
The Mongols defeat the Kipchaks and eastern Bulgars; in 1239 the Kipchak confederation collapses.
Two German military and religious orders active in the Baltic region to convert pagan peoples of the region—the Brothers of the Sword and the Teutonic Knights—unite, becoming known as the Livonian Order of Teutonic Knights.
1238
The Mongols capture Moscow; in 1240 they capture Kiev; in 1241 they invade Poland.
1243
The Mongols and subject Tatars found the Kipchak khanate in eastern Russia.
1245
The Cumans, a branch of the Kipchaks, settle in Hungary 1260
The Mongol Empire is divided into four khanates.
1261
The Byzantines retake Constantinople.
1262
Rudolf I of Hapsburg conquers Austria; the Hapsburg dynasty remains powerful until 1918.
1290
Osman I proclaims Ottoman Turk independence from the Seljuk Turks and begins a period of expansion.
1288-1391
Jews are expelled from Naples, England, France, and Spain.
1291
The Crusades end with a rout of Christian forces by Muslims at Jerusalem.
Three Forest Cantons—Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden—sign a treaty of mutual defense, forming the Swiss Confederation; other cantons join the confederation in later centuries.
1297
Monaco is settled by the Genoese family known as Grimaldi and becomes a state.
1310
Radu Negru founds the principality of Walachia in southern Romania under the control of the Hungarians.
1347-1351
The Black Death (bubonic plague) ravages Europe, with subsequent outbreaks.
1381
Commoners rebel in England in the Peasants’ Revolt.
1389
The kingdom of Montenegro, southwest of Serbia on the Adriatic Sea, is founded when Serbs, defeated by the Ottoman Turks, hide out.
1391-1395
The Turks and Turkic-speaking Mongols under Tamerlane (Timur) invade western Russia and defeat the Mongol Golden Horde and subject peoples.
1397
Queen Margaret I unites Denmark, Sweden, and Norway in the Union of Kalmar; the union is dissolved in 1523.
1400-1416
Owain Glyndyr leads a revolt against the English in Wales.
1410
A Lithuanian-Polish army defeats the Teutonic Knights at Tannenburg. 1415
Jan Huss, an anti-Catholic reformer of Bohemia, is burned at the stake for heresy; in 1420-34 fighting occurs between his followers and the Holy Roman Empire, known as the Hussite wars.
1429
Joan of Arc leads a French force in relief of Orleans under siege by the English.
1431
The king of Norway is recognized as the ruler of Iceland.
The Russians defeat the Eastern Bulgars.
1440 s
The Klpchak khanate breaks up Into four Independent Tatar khanates. 1444
Albanian chleftalns are united under Skanderberg (George Kastrlotl). 1453
Constantinople falls to the Ottoman Turks, ending Byzantine rule; the Turks rename the city Istanbul.
France defeats England, ending what is known as the Hundred Years’ War; the English are driven from France.
1455-1485
England experiences a civil war known as the War of the Roses, brought to an end by Henry Tudor, who as Henry VII founds the Tudor dynasty
1466
East Prussia is ceded to Poland.
1517
Martin Luther posts his Ninety-five Theses, the beginning of the Protestant Reformation.
1519
Charles I of Spain becomes Charles V Holy Roman Emperor; in 1527 Charles takes control of Rome, Milan, and Sicily; in 1549 Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg are ceded into the Spanish Empire.
1534
Henry VIII establishes and heads the Church of England.
1536
Wales is united with England.
Norway becomes a province of Denmark.
1545-1563
The Council of Trent reforms the Catholic Church.
1471
Switzerland becomes the first nation-state to pass anti-Rroma laws; other nations follow suit over the centuries.
1478
The Spanish Inquisition is started by Ferdinand II and Isabella to punish heresy.
The Grand Principality of Muscovy destroys the Principality of Novgorod and divides it into five parts.
The Crimean khanate becomes a vassal state of the Ottoman Turks.
1479
Spain unites under Ferdinand II and Isabella I.
1480
Ivan III of Moscow defeats the Tatars.
1492
The Moors are defeated at Granada; Moorish power ends in Spain; remaining Jews are expelled from Spain along with many of the Moors; the Rroma are also subject to persecution.
The Italian Christopher Columbus, exploring for Spain, lands in America. 1494
France and the Holy Roman Empire compete to control Italy.
16th century
Russian Slavs expand southward onto Tatar lands.
1504
The Rroma are expelled from France; in 1530 they are expelled from England.
1516-1546
Barbarossa, a Muslim (called a Saracen by some Europeans), leads raids out of North Africa on Mediterranean coastal cities as well as on European ships in the Atlantic Ocean.
1547
Hungary is divided, with the Hapsburgs of Austria governing the west, and the Ottoman Turks the central area.
Ivan IV becomes the first czar of a united Russia. mid-16th century
The Ottoman Empire reaches its greatest extent under Suleiman, includ-lng much of central and eastern Europe.
1555
Holy Roman Emperor Charles V signs the Peace of Augsburg, establishing the right of princes to choose Lutheranism or Catholicism for their territories.
1558-1582
Poland, Russia, and Sweden dispute over and divide Livonia (now part of Latvia and Estonia) in the Livonian War.
1558-1603
During the reign of Elizabeth I England becomes a European naval power, commerce and industry grow, and the arts flourish.
1571
The Ottoman Turks conquer Cyprus.
1579
Seven northern Dutch Protestant provinces form the Union of Utrecht; in 1581 the United Provinces of the Netherlands declare independence from Spain; the southern provinces remain loyal to Spain.
1581-1582
Yermak leads the Cossacks against Tatar forces on behalf of the Russian czarist government.
1588
England under Elizabeth I defeats the invading Spanish Armada.
1598
The Edict of Nantes grants considerable freedom to French Protestants.
1603
James I becomes king of England and Scotland, founding the Stuart dynasty.
1618
The Thirty Years’ War unites German Protestant princes with France, Sweden, and Denmark against the Hapsburgs of Austria and Catholic princes of the Holy Roman Empire; the war is sparked by a Protestant rebellion in Bohemia, where papal officials are thrown from a window (the Defenestration of Prague).
1628
The Nenets of Arctic Russia come under Russian rule.
1631
The Roman papacy recognizes San Marino as an independent nation. 1636
The Annals of the Masters, are compiled tales of ancient Irish peoples, are published.
1642
The English Civil War begins.
1648
The Peace of Westphalia ends the Thirty Years’ War and leads to increased religious tolerance; Spain recognizes the independence of the Netherlands.
1649-1660
Oliver Cromwell governs England as a Commonwealth.
1668
Under the Treaty of Lisbon, Spain recognizes Portugal’s independence. 1670-1671
The Cossacks under Stenka Razin rebel against Russian rule.
1685
Louis XIV of France revokes the Edict of Nantes.
1689-1725
Peter I (Peter the Great) carries out reforms, introducing Western European civilization into Russia; in 1712 he founds St. Petersburg and makes it Russia’s capital.
1699
Most of Hungary is ceded to Austria by Ottoman Turks.
1700- 1721
Denmark, Poland, and Russia fight Sweden in the Great Northern War; by the terms of the Treaty of Nystad in 1721, Sweden cedes Karelia to Russia.
1701
The kingdom of Prussia is founded.
1701- 1714
European dynasties struggle for the throne of Spain in the War of the
Spanish Succession; in 1714 Spain loses many of its European holdings, such as Gibraltar, to Great Britain.
1706-1707
The Act of Union unites England and Scotland, forming Great Britain. 1719
Vaduz and Schellenberg become Liechtenstein, an independent principality of the Holy Roman Empire, ruled by the Liechtenstein family.
1733-1735
European dynasties struggle for the throne of Poland in the War of the Polish Succession, with a final reshuffling of territories negotiated in the Treaty of Vienna.
1740
Frederick II (Frederick the Great) is crowned king of Prussia and begins building it into European power.
1756-1763
In the Seven Years’ War England and France compete for supremacy in colonial North America and India, and the house of Austria and the kingdom of Prussia compete for power in Germany
1775-1783
The American colonies gain independence from Great Britain in the American Revolution.
1783
Territorial partitions among Russia, Prussia, and Austria inspire the Polish Revolutionary War.
1785
The North Caucasus is designated a Russian province.
1789-1792
In the French Revolution, the monarchy of Louis XVI is overthrown; in 1792 France is declared a republic.
Late 18th century
The Russian Empire expands into the Black Sea region, Caucasus, Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, and Moldavia.
1801
Great Britain and Ireland are formally united.
1804
Napoleon I Bonaparte declares himself the emperor of France.
1806
Napoleon establishes a series of French-dependent German states known as the Confederation of the Rhine, ending the Holy Roman Empire.
1809
During the Napoleonic Wars, Sweden loses Finland to Russia.
Sweden becomes a constitutional monarchy 1810-1825
Most of Spain’s overseas colonies win Independence.
1812
The French under Napoleon invade Russia and are defeated.
The Ottoman Turks recognize Serbian autonomy.
1814
Denmark cedes Norway to Sweden; Iceland remains part of Denmark.
1815
In the Battle of Waterloo Napoleon is defeated by the English and Prussians.
The German Confederation, a union of 39 independent states, and the kingdom of Poland are formed at the Congress of Vienna; Netherlands unites with Belgium and Luxembourg to form a kingdom.
1829
Greece wins independence from the Ottoman Empire; the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 defines its modern boundaries and places it under the protection of Britain, France, and Russia.
The Catholic Emancipation Act frees Irish Catholics from repression by England.
1830-1831
Belgium rebels against Dutch rule to establish an independent nation.
1831
Poland declares indpendence from Russia but the rebellion is crushed. 1834-1859
Shamil, possibly of Avar ancestry, leads the people of the Caucasus in an unsuccessful struggle for freedom from Russia; in 1864 Russia annexes the North Caucasus after suppressing the last tribal resistance in the region.
1845-1854
The Irish potato famine leads to the great emigration.
1848
Revolutions (known as the Revolutions of 1848) occur throughout Europe; French, Italians, Germans, Danes, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Hungarians, Croats, and Romanians demand greater freedoms from their own governments or from the empires dominating them.
1853-1856
Great Britain, France, and Turkey defeat Russia in the Crimean War. 1856
Slavery is abolished in Romania, an event known to the Rroma as Slobuzenja.
1860-1861
The kingdom of Italy is formed, including most of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, and Sardinia; in 1866 Italy annexes Venice, and in 1870 occupies Rome; in 1871 Rome becomes Italy’s capital.
Monaco is recognized as an independent state under the protection of France.
1861-1862
Moldavia and Walachia are united as Romania.
1867
Austria-Hungary, a dual state, is established, existing until 1918. 1870-1871
France and Germany fight in the Franco-Prussian (or Franco-German) War, with Germany victorious.
1871
The German states are united as the German Empire, as organized by the Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck.
A new provisional government in France establishes the Third Republic.
1877
The British Empire reaches its greatest territorial expansion.
1878
The European powers call a conference, the Congress of Berlin, to revise the European map following the Russo-Turkish Wars of 1875-78, last in a series of wars between the Russians and Ottoman Turks starting in the 18th century.
The Pomaks try unsuccessfully to create an autonomous region in Bulgaria. 1881
Attacks on the Jews are condoned by authorities in Russia, the first pogrom.
1897
The Jewish Zionism movement is founded.
1905
Norway gains full independence from Sweden.
1908
Serbia leads the creation of the Balkan League, which includes Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Greece in order to fight for independence from Austro-Hungary and Turkey.
1912-1913
The Balkan Wars are fought, two consecutive wars fought among the countries of the Balkan Peninsula for possession of European territories held by the Ottoman Empire; in 1913 a conference of the Great Powers—Britain, Germany Russia, Austria, France, and Italy—revise the European map.
1913
Crete, independent since 1898, unites with Greece.
1914
The assassination of the Austrian archduke Francis Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist leads to outbreak of World War I (the Great War), in which the Central Powers of Austria-Hungary, Germany Bulgaria, and the
Ottoman Empire fight against the Allied Powers of Great Britain, Russia, Italy, France, Belgium, Montenegro, and Japan; the war lasts until 1918.
1916
The Easter Rebellion against British rule takes place in Ireland.
1917
The Russian Revolution overthrows the monarchy of Nicholas II; the Bolsheviks seize power.
During the Russian Revolution, Finland declares its independence from Russia; in 1918 the country is torn by civil war.
The sinking of the Lusitania by a German U-boat leads the United States to join the Allied Powers in World War I.
Serbs, Croats, Slovenians, and Montenegrins unite in a union of South Slavs under the Pact of Corfu.
The Ukrainian Republic declares independence; Bolsheviks invade Ukraine, creating Soviet Ukrainian Republic.
1918
An armistice is signed, ending World War I.
With the Austro-Hungarian monarchy defeated, Hungary proclaims itself a republic.
The Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, led by Peter I of Serbia, forms.
Moravia, Bohemia, and Slovakia form the independent state of Czechoslovakia.
Poland declares independence from Russia.
Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania declare independence form Russia and Germany.
Denmark recognizes Iceland’s independence by the terms of the Treaty of Union; the Iceland republic is proclaimed in 1944.
1919
The Treaty of Versailles is signed revising the European map.
The Weimar Republic is founded in Germany.
Finland becomes a republic.
Benito Mussolini introduces fascism in Italy The League of Nations is formed.
1921
The Anglo-Irish Treaty creates the Irish Free State (later known as the Republic of Ireland) within the British Commonwealth of Nations.
1922
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Soviet Union) is established. Fascist Benito Mussolini becomes the prime minister of Italy
1923
Adolf Hitler forms the National Socialist Party in Germany Turkey is declared a republic after a revolt that ends the sultanate.
1925
Cyprus becomes a British Crown colony 1929
The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes becomes Yugoslavia.
Adolf Hitler and the Nazis assume power in Germany 1934-1939
Joseph Stalin purges the opposition in the Soviet Union.
1936
The Rome-Berlin Axis agreement is signed by Hitler and Mussolini. 1936-1939
The Spanish civil war pits Nationalists (or Insurgents) against the Republicans (or Loyalists); the right-wing Nationalists under Franco triumph.
1938
Germany annexes Austria; German Jews are the target of concerted violence on Kristallnacht (the Night of Broken Glass).
1939
Germany annexes Czechoslovakia.
Italy annexes Albania.
Germany invades Poland.
The Allied powers of the British Commonwealth (except Ireland) and the French declare war on the Axis Powers of Germany Italy, and Japan, beginning World War II; the war lasts until 1945.
1939-1940
Russia defeats Finland in the Russo-Finnish War.
1939-1945
During World War II, millions of Jews lose their lives in the Holocaust; hundreds of thousands of Rroma are also executed; other groups are also targeted, such the mentally ill, homosexuals, and political dissidents.
1941
The German invasion of the Soviet Union ends the nonaggression pact between Germany and the Soviets.
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor leads the United States to join the Allied Powers against the Axis Powers.
1943-1944
Joseph Stalin accuses various Muslim peoples living in the Caucasus region—Caucasians and Turkics both—of collaborating with Nazi Germany and orders the deportation of many to Soviet Asia; many die en route; in 1956-57 some of the survivors are allowed to return to their homelands.
1944
The Soviet Union annexes Estonia and Lithuania.
1945
Leaders of the Allied Powers meet at the Yalta Conference.
The Allied Powers divide Germany into the American, British, French, and Soviet zones.
The Potsdam Conference marks the end of World War II.
Serbia becomes a Communist republic under the Yugoslav Socialist Federation.
1945- 1946
Nazi war criminals are tried at Nurnberg (Nuremberg), Germany.
1945
The League of Nations is replaced by the United Nations (UN).
1946- 1958
The Fourth Republic is established in France; many of France’s colonies gain independence; Italians vote to establish a republic.
1947
The Marshall Plan, a program of United States economic aid to rebuild Europe, is announced; the European Recovery Act in 1948 authorizes the plan.
1948
The Americans, British, and French integrate their sections of Berlin into one economic entity
The state of Israel is founded from part of ancient Palestine as a homeland for the Jews.
1949
The Council of Europe, an organization of European states, is established to achieve a greater unity among the member nations on the basis of common traditions of political liberty
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a military alliance of Western nations, is formed.
Two German republics, East Germany and West Germany, are established; the city of Berlin in East Germany is divided between them.
1950
French foreign minister Robert Schuman proposes idea of a union of European nations in a speech on May 9, 1950, celebrated as the birthday of the European Union.
1955
East Germany and West Germany become sovereign states.
The Warsaw Treaty Organization (the Warsaw Pact) is formed, a military alliance of the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary Poland, and Romania.
1956
The Hungarian Revolution overthrows the Communist dictator; the Soviet Union crushes the uprising.
1957
By the terms of the Treaty of Rome the European Economic Community (EEC; Common Market) is formed to promote European development; the original 12 members are Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany Greece, Ireland, Italy Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, United Kingdom, and Spain.
The Soviet Union launches Sputnik I, the first artificial satellite, into space.
1958
A new constitution establishes the Fifth Republic in France; Charles de Gaulle becomes president.
1960
Cyprus becomes an independent republic; in 1975 the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus in northern Cyprus is established.
The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) is formed.
1961
Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union becomes the first human in space and the first to orbit around the Earth.
The East German government builds the Berlin Wall around the West German sector of Berlin.
Valentina Tereshkova of the Soviet Union becomes the first woman in space.
Alexei Leonov of the Soviet Union becomes the first human to walk in space.
1964
Malta declares full independence from Great Britain.
1967
Three organizations—the European Economic Community (EEC), the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom)—merge as the European Community (EC).
1968
The Soviet Union invades Czechoslovakia following a rebellion.
The Basque separatist organization, Euzkadi Ta Azkatasuna (ETA), is founded.
1972
The Irish Republican Army (IRA), opposing English rule in Northern Ireland, carries out attacks known as Bloody Friday
1973
East and West Germany establish diplomatic relations; they join the United Nations.
The European Space Agency is formed.
1978
Under a new constitution, Spain becomes a democratic parliamentary monarchy.
1979
The United Nations recognizes the Rroma as a distinct ethnic group.
1980
The Polish Solidarity trade union forms.
1986
The Chernobyl nuclear plant in Ukraine melts down.
The Saami of various nations adopt a flag.
1986-1987
The European Community formulates and adopts the Single Europe Act, which revises the Treaty of Rome, committing the EC to establishing a single market in which all trade barriers and customs frontiers are eliminated.
1989
Poland holds elections to form a government free of Soviet domination.
The Velvet Revolution takes place in Czechoslovakia.
The Communist government in East Germany collapses, and the Berlin Wall, separating East German and West German sectors, is dismantled; in
1990 East Germany and West Germany are reunited under the government of the former West Germany.
Serbia invades Kosovo, ending its autonomy 1990-1991
The Soviet Union dissolves into loosely allied republics as the Russian Federation; some former Soviet states declare independence, among them Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, and Ukraine in Europe; other nations formerly under Soviet influence, among them Albania, Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czechoslovakia, Macedonia, Romania, Slovenia, and Yugoslavia, begin new period of self-determination.
1992
The Russian government gives the Cossacks status as an ethnic group.
Bosnia and Herzegovina declare independence from the Serbs in Yugoslavia; ethnic conflicts of Croat and Muslim nationalists against the Serbs erupt into civil war; Serbia and Montenegro form the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia; in 1995 the Dayton Peace accord establishes the two states, consisting of Bosnian Muslim and Croatian territory, and Serb territory.
1992-1993
The federation of the Czech Republic with Slovakia is dissolved; Czechoslovakia splits into two republics, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
1992
The Maastricht Treaty (formally, the Treaty on European Union) is signed in Maastricht, Netherlands, by the members of the European Community (EC), including Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and Spain; the treaty takes effect in 1993, creating the European Union (EU).
Belgium becomes a federalist state with the three autonomous regions of Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels.
1993
Andorrans vote to establish their first constitution, declaring themselves a parliamentary co-principality; Andorra joins the United Nations.
Monaco and San Marino join the United Nations.
1994
The Channel Tunnel between the United Kingdom and France is officially opened.
1994-1996
Following a declaration of independence from the Russian Federation by the Chechens of Chechnya, fighting occurs between the Chechens and Russians; in 1999-2000 renewed fighting takes place, with Chechen resistance continuing to the present.
1995
Austria, Finland, and Sweden join the European Union.
1997
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Russia sign a cooperation pact, in 1999 Poland joins NATO.
Wales and Scotland vote to create their own legislative bodies.
1998
A secessionist rebellion erupts in Kosovo against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, leading to an air bombardment of Yugoslavia by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1999 and an agreement calling for the withdrawal of Serbian forces from Kosovo and their replacement by NATO peacekeeping troops, with Kosovo a UN-administered region.
The Good Friday Agreement negotiated by Irish and British heads of state leads to the formation of an independent government of Northern Ireland in 1999.
2002
The euro—euro-denominated coins and bills—goes into circulation in 12 of the 15 European Union member states, replacing national currencies.
2003
The European Convention in Brussels drafts a treaty for a constitution for the European Union.
The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia becomes Serbia and Montenegro.
2004
Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, the Slovak Republic, and Slovenia join the European Union.
2005
The European Parliament, the representative assembly of the European Union, gives approval for the membership of Romania and Bulgaria (scheduled for 2007); French and Dutch voters vote no to the ratification of the European Constitutional Treaty
World History
