In his inaugural address, James Madison observed that the “present situation” of the United States was “full of difficulties” and that war continued to rage among European powers. Yet he assumed the presidency, he said, “with no other discouragement than what springs from my own inadequacy.” The content of the speech was as modest as its delivery; virtually no one could hear it.
Madison was a small, neat, rather precise person, narrower in his interests than Jefferson but in many ways a deeper thinker. He was more conscientious in the performance of his duties and more consistent in adhering to his principles. Ideologically, however, they were as close as two active and intelligent people could be. Madison had no better solution to offer for the problem of the hour than had Jefferson. The Embargo Act had failed and its successor, the NonIntercourse Act, proved difficult to enforce—once an American ship left port, there was no way to prevent the skipper from steering for England or France. The British continued to seize American vessels.
Because prudent captains remained in port, trade stagnated. Federal revenue through the tariff declined. In 1809, Secretary of the Treasury Gallatin was alarmed by the growing federal deficit. He urged Representative Nathaniel Macon of North Carolina to introduce legislation to remove all restrictions on commerce with France and Britain. Known as Macon’s Bill No. 2, it authorized the president to reapply the principle of non-intercourse to either of the major powers if the other should “cease to violate the neutral commerce of the United States.” This bill became law in May 1810.
The volume of U. S. commerce with the British Isles swiftly zoomed to pre-embargo levels. The mighty British fleet controlled the seas. Napoleon therefore announced that he had repealed his decrees against neutral shipping, seemingly fulfilling the provisions of Macon’s Bill No. 2. Madison, seeking concessions from Britain, closed American ports to British ships and goods. Napoleon, despite his announcement to the contrary, continued to seize American ships and cargoes whenever it suited his purposes.
The British grimly refused to modify the Orders in Council. Madison could not afford either to admit that Napoleon had deceived him or to reverse American policy still another time. Reluctantly he came to the conclusion that unless Britain repealed the Orders, the United States must declare war.
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