Historical Background
The Celts’ origin is obscure. They came from central Europe or farther east, from Russia, moving slowly westward and establishing themselves in much of western Europe. The somewhat obscure and generic term Celt was applied to a variety of related tribal societies in Iron Age Europe. About 700 B. C., the first Celts went across the English Channel from Europe. Whether or not the arrival of the Celts in the British Isles was an actual invasion, or a more gradual process, is an open question. However their coming did not mean a total take-over overnight. Immigrants from the Continent came more as an intermittent flow than as a sudden torrent. Britain was not taken by storm culturally, and the infusion of new elements continued a movement already begun, allowing the British Iron Age to develop a certain insular character. Thus the period known as the Iron Age lasted in Britain for about 800 years (from c. 750 B. C. to A. D. 43). The changes and technological innovations that occurred during this time were every bit as significant as those that have occurred in the last 800 years, from the 13th century to the present day. One thing is certain: the “barbarian” Celtic civilization was a great deal more advanced than some (Roman) writings would have us believe. By the end of the Iron Age, amongst other things, coinage had been introduced, wheel-thrown pottery was being made, there was an increased interest in personal appearance, people had started to live in larger and more settled communities, and the mortuary rites of society had changed. The newcomers were indeed lovers of personal finery and ostentatious display, which is reflected in finds of elaborate jewelry, weapons and the remains of chariots in graves. The Celts were organized into tribes consisting of enlarged family units headed by a hereditary king or an elected leader. Celtic society was divided into four main classes: the warrior aristocracy, the Druids, who were the religious leaders, the free commoners, and the slaves. Interestingly women were regarded highly amongst the Celts, which was unusual during ancient times. Celtic society was indeed more equal in terms of
Left: Celtic warrior. The Celts had a warrior class drawn from what we would describe as the middle and upper classes. They were warriors in the heroic sense, living for war, and their glorification of bravery often led them to recklessness. Most Celts scorned the use of body protection but chiefs and the wealthiest Celts often did wear armor and helmets.
Right: Pict warrior. Ordinary Celtic soldiers, sometimes naked, worked themselves into a fury before entering battle and then fought like wild beasts. Their weapons included axes, javelins and spears (approx. 2.5m long), and Caesar noted the use of slings, and occasionally bows and arrows. The Celts often carried for protection an oval (or round) wooden, leather-enclosed, brightly decorated shield that was 5 to 8 feet long.
Gender roles. Women were on more or less equal footing with men, being extremely dexterous in domestic skills but also sometimes accomplished warriors, merchants and rulers. Some, like the famous Boudica and Cartimandua, even became tribal queens.
The progression from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age is not as clear as the approximate dates given above. Iron was a far superior metal to bronze, being stronger and more durable. It helped in improving the practices of farming, making tilling easier. On the other hand, it required much hotter fires to extract it from its ore and so it took a fair degree of skill to produce iron. None of this is to be taken to mean that bronze fell out of use overnight. Rather, iron simply became an alternative metal; many bronze objects have been found that were made in the Iron Age. It should be noted that, in spite of their common language, religious beliefs, customs and arts,
Social organization and lifestyle, the Celts never formed a united nation in Britain, or a centralized realm or empire in Europe. Tribal particularities and clannic desire for independence always prevented the formation of any large political, economic or military entity, which made them vulnerable to their enemies. This in the end caused their defeat, and subjugation. Had they been strongly united they would probably have been invincible.
Celtic Tribes in Britain
One of the main sources of information about the Celtic world are Roman writers, notably Tacitus, and much of our information about the tribes of Scotland derives
From the geographical writings of Claudius Ptolemaeus or Ptolemy (a. d. 90-168). However, all authors were writing from a Roman viewpoint and their works have to be treated with some caution when it comes to their descriptions of the tribes and their beliefs and attributes. The Celtic tribes of southern England (e. g., Durotriges, Belgae, Regni, and Cantiaci) had close contact with other Celtic tribes established in northern France (Caletes, Atrebates, Morini, and Menapi). By 150 b. c. there was a substantial commerce between Britain and the rest of Europe. This involved trade in tin, silver, gold, pottery, wine, coins and slaves. Apart from trading across the Channel, the British tribes were even able to send military aid to their “cousins” in France against the Romans, one reason for the first attempt to conquer them by Julius Caesar in 55-54 b. c. By the time the Romans arrived for the second time in a. d. 43, Celtic Britain was organized into small independent kingdoms.
As technology improved and its use in agriculture and hunting increased, so the human population increased too. It was inevitable that these expanding communities would eventually start to compete for resources, which led to the building of defensive works around the settlements. The Celts lived in tribes divided into extended family groups. These families controlled certain areas of the country, occupying villages, and some tribes constructed defensive positions known as hill forts.
World History
