Form new soil layers. Evidence of highland terra rosa has been found as far away as the Katar hills along the Jordan River. Strong soil erosion and frost occasionally destroy the area’s agricultural products. In addition to agriculture, the inliabitants of the valley have also produced pottery, metals, and textiles. Evidence of these industries has been found in excavations in the area.
The valley is comfortably warm to intolerably hot and humid. It receives rain mainly between tlte months of November and March, ranging between 38 and 41 cm (15-16 in.) annually. The valley’s tropical character has been made green through water and irrigation systems, and malignant malaria and other epidemics were eradicated a few decades ago.
Two main, parallel roads were used in antiquity, running north-south on both sides of the valley, connecting its major settlements. The roads are dated by numerous Roman milestones, but they appear to have played a similar role as early as tlte first and second millennia bce. They were open to the north, but ended in the south at the Dead Sea and tlie surrounding steep cliffs, disconnected from tire Wadi ‘Arabah and the Red Sea. Both roads were interconnected with a number of subsidiary roads.
Many archaeological surveys and excavations have been carried out in the valley, including those of William Foxwell Albright (1926) in the 1920s; Nelson Glueck (1951) in the 1930S-1940S; Henri de Contenson (1964) and James Mel-laart in the early 1950s; and Moawiyah Ibrahim, James Sauer, andlChair Yassineinthe 1970s (Ibrahim etal, 1976). Until tire mid-1970s, large-scale excavations were restricted to a few sites: Teleilat el-Ghassul, Qumran, Tell es-Sultan (Jericho), Tulul Abu el-'Alayiq, Khirbat al-Maljar, Tell Iktanu, Tell Deir 'Alla, Tell es-Sa‘idiyeh, Mallaha, Sha'ar ha-Golan (al-’Uqhuwanah), and ICliirbet Kerak (Beth-Yerah). [See Teleilat el-Ghassul; Qumran; Jericho; Mafjar, Kliirbat al-; Iktanu, Tell; Deir 'Alla, Tell; Sha'ar ha-Golan; Beth-Yerah.] In addition, small excavations were conducted at Shuna (North), Pella, Tell Abu Habil, Ghrubba, and Azeimah. [5ee Ghrubba.] Work has been resumed at old excavation sites in the east Jordan Valley, at Ghassul, Iktanu, Deir 'Alla, Sa'idiyeh, Pella, and Shunah (North), while new excavations have begun at Tell Nimrin, Umm Hammad esh-Sharqi (et-Twal), Kataret es-Samra, Abu Sarbut, Tell el-Mazar, Abu Hamid, Abu en-Ni’aj, Tell el-Hayyat, Abu el-Kliaraz, el-Maqbarah, and Dhra' el-Khan. [5ee Nimrin, Tell; Mazar, Tell el-; Hayyat, Tell el-.]
Paleolithic to Chalcolithic Periods. The earliest evidence of habitation in tlie Jordan Valley was found at the Paleolitlric sites of Tell Abu Habil, south of Wadi el-Yabis, and Wadi el-Hammeh, about 2 km (i mi.) north of'Tabaqat Fahl (Pella). In the lower Wadi el-Hammeh basin, a sequence of Pleistocene deposits dating from about 80,000
11,000 years bp have been attested. Among tlrese deposits were Upper Paleolithic, Kebaran, and Natufian sites. The
Natufian occupation includes two isolated large oval enclosures and smaller structures (Edwards, 1989, pp. 409-412).
Natufian and Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) evidence has also been found at Abu ’Urabi, Mhitli, and Dhra' el-Khan, sites situated at the mouth of wadis close to foothills. The most impressive Natufian and PPN remains in the valley were excavated at Jericho and 'Ain Mallaha. The Natufian evidence at Mallaha included three levels with a large number of huts and plastered storage pits, in addition to pits witli collective burials. At Jericho a clay platform with microliths and a bone harpoon-head were the main finds from the Na-mfian I period. Jericho is a unique PPN setdement, with its successive layers and distinctive defensive structures, which include a wall enclosing an area of 4 ha (10 acres) and a massive stone tower (Kenyon, i960, 1965, 1981; Kenyon and Holland, 1982, 1983). Except for its defensive structures, Jericho’s repertoire has close parallels at Wadi Himar, 'Ain Ghazal, and Wadi Shu'eib. [See Jericho; ‘Ain Ghazal.]
Jericho and Sha'ar ha-Golan, represent two groups in an early phase of the Pottery Neolithic (PN) in Palestine. Jericho’s pottery includes distinctive coarse ware and decorated red-burnished ware; Sha'ar ha-Golan and other sites display tire painted and incised pottery with simple geometric designs of tlie Yarmukian culture, in addition to distinctive examples of engraved and incised pebbles and human figures. Other sites include PN material: Ghassul, Ghruba, Ghannam, Dhra' el-Hesseini, Katar Zakari, Qa’dan, Pella, Baqurah, and Abu Hamid. Most show no distinction between PN and Chalcolithic material. Both periods seem to represent early village farming communities that were related to many other sites on the highland.
The Chalcolithic period tliat followed has been attested at many large, open settlements in the valley witli coarse and painted handmade pottery, chisel axes, and fan scrapers. Large-scale excavations, such as at Ghassul and Abu Hamid, exposed large rectangular houses and storage facilities.
Bronze Age. Early phases of the Early Bronze Age (before the beginning of the third millennium) appear at open settlements such as Rweihah, Umm Hammad esh-Sharqi, and Kataret es-Samra. Otlier EB II-III sites were located in the footliills and have a defensive character. Khirbet Kerak (Beth-Yerah) and Jericho are the main fortified towns in the valley. More recent excavations at Iktanu, Sa'idiyeh, Abu el-Kharaz, Pella, and Shunah (North) show scanty evidence of EB fortifications. In the following transitional period (EB
IV-Middle Bronze I), there are numerous low sites witli new locations in the Katar hills, foothills, and side wadis. Most lack architectural remains; the primary evidence is from shaft tombs, such as at Wadi el-Hammeh, Umm Hammad (et-Twal), and Jericho. [5ee Shaft Tombs.]
The MB period is well represented at many sites in tlie valley where excavation has revealed architectural complexes: Pella, Tell el-Hayyat, and Deir 'Alla. Most strildng are a series of four roughly square MB IIA-C temples at Tell el-Hayyat and defensive walls at Jericho, Deir ‘Alla, and Pella. Significant MB material has come from tombs at Jericho and Pella (Kenyon, i960, 1965).
The prosperity of the Jordan Valley continued throughout the Late Bronze Age (1550-1200 bce) and has been widely attested in settlements at Jericho, Deir ‘Alla, Pella, Abu el-ICharaz, Sa‘idiyeh, and Kataret es-Samra. At some of tltese sites, LB tombs were also excavated. Egyptian, Cypriot, and Mycenaean materials demonstrate strong international contacts with other Mediterranean regions. An LB sanctuary on a high platform was excavated at Deir ‘Alla.
Iron Age. There seems to have been a smooth transition from the Late Bronze into tire Iron Age. Most major LB sites were reoccupied in tlie main periods of the Iron Age. This cultural continuity can be demonstrated at Jericho, Nimrin, Deir ‘Alla, Mazar, Sa‘idiyeh, Pella, and Abu el-Kdiaraz, although some recession in international contacts can be observed during Iron I.
Significant material from Iron II comes from excavations at Deir ‘Alla, phase IX (Franken, 1969, phase M). This phase includes a large architectural complex that may have served as a religious center and related workshops. A lengthy Ammonite/Aramaic plaster text attributed to Balaam Bar Beor, the Balaam mentioned in the Hebrew Bible appears to represent a tradition of religious practice in the Jordan Valley that may extend beyond the immediate region. [5'(3e Deir ‘Alla Inscriptions, Aramaic Language and Literature.] A strong earthquake toward the end of the ninth cenmry bce destroyed this setdement and perhaps others in the area.
Persian tlirough Islamic Periods. At the end of the Iron Age, in about the mid-sixth century bce, there is a decline in the material culture of the Jordan Valley, even though some sites reflect continuous occupation between the sixth and first cenmries bce. The best-known sites during this period are Nimrin, Deir ‘Alla, Mazar, Sa'idiyeh, and Pella; however, there is relatively little architectural evidence from them for the Persian and Early Hellenistic periods. Toward the end of the Plellenistic period (second and first centuries bce), prosperity is demonstrated through building activities and the quantity of imported amphora handles witli inscriptions. The Dead Sea Scrolls found at Qumran, at the northwest corner of the Dead Sea, and in the surrounding caves are the most dramatic discovery in the Jordan Valley. [See Dead Sea Scrolls.]
The Roman period is well represented throughout the Jordan Valley. More titan fifty Roman sites are distributed in and near foothills, on the Ghor, and near the Katar hills. Many were situated along the Roman road, which is indicated by a number of milestones, some bearing Latin inscriptions. Sites located on the peaks of hills served defensive and military purposes, while otlter, open sites were supported by agriculture. Most of tlte Roman sites have been identified in surveys. A few were excavated: Tulul Abu el-‘Alayiq, Abu el-Kharaz, and Pella. These investigations showed that the Roman occupation in the valley was strongly connected to urban sites in the highlands. Cultural, religious, and commercial activities are best represented at Pella, which Josephus Flavius (first century ce) referred to as a city of importance. Excavations at the site revealed a large civic complex and some tombs from the Roman period.
During the Byzantine era, population density was high, reflecting, to a large extent the preceding Roman period. Byzantine sites are found everywhere in the valley and indicate that agriculture was practiced on a large scale. Byzantine remains have been excavated mainly at Pella, the largest city in tlie area then. Excavation has uncovered three churches and large residential quarters. [5ee Churches.] The Byzantine city must have served as an administrative center for at least the northern Jordan Valley and parts of the eastern highland.
Islamic sites are represented in all parts of the valley, especially (but not exclusively) from the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries. Archaeological surveys have shown Ottoman sites to be underrepresented, altitough historical sources mention a significant number of settlements during the period. Interest in Islamic sites is increasing, and a number of them have been excavated. Hisham’s palace at Kliir-bat al-Mafjar near Jericho for example, was built in the first years of the Umayyad caliph Hisham ibn ‘Abd al-Malil< (724-743). It comprises a large central courtyard and a bath complex with painted mosaic floors, in addition to a mosque and a gatehouse (Hamilton, 1959). The most impressive archaeological evidence of a large Islamic settlement comes from Pella, however, where, as with many other sites in tlte area, the inhabitants’ Christian and civic rights seem to have been maintained as a result of a peace covenant witit tlte Muslim army led by Abu ‘Ubaidah ‘Amir bin el-Jarrah. In Arab sources, Fahl (Pella) is mentioned as a center for tlte district of Transjordan (Jund el-‘Urdun). The archaeological and the historical evidence reveals continuity from the Byzantine into the Umayyad and ‘Abbasid periods. The area experienced a severe eartitquake in 747, whose effects could be traced in a number of locations at Pella. A sizable ‘Abbasid settlement, nortlt of the mound, was established in the ninth and continued into the tenth century (Walmsley, 1989, pp. 436-438). [5eeUmayyad Caliphate; ‘Abbasid Caliphate.]
Most of the Islamic sites in the Jordan valley are agricultural and were sometimes connected to aqueducts and otlter elements in irrigation systems. There is clear evidence that sugar was produced on a large scale in the valley, based on the number of sugar mills associated with quantities of “sugar pots.” Mosques, mausolea, and cemeteries are found all over tlte valley. [See Mosque; Mausoleum.] Monuments carry the names Nebi Musa, Abu ‘Ubayad, Dirar, Sharhabil, Ma‘adh, and Waqqas.
World History
