Greco-Roman Period: The Westernization of the Levant

In terms of intercivilizational impact, there is no match to the ‘hellenization’ of the Levant. With Alexander the Great’s conquest in 332 BCE, dominant elite Greek (and later Roman) western civilization transformed what would become the Province of Syria-Palaestina. Past encounters of local peoples with empires had not led to acculturation, although recent research suggests that the process was underway before Alexander. Are local traditions still discernible? Is there noticeable variability in cultural adaptation? The following select archaeological materials highlight these issues and western acculturation.

Hellenistic Period

Phoenician/Hellenistic continuities in coastal cities (Tyre/Dor) document a Greek acculuturation underway before Alexander. Just as clear is the gradual superseding of oriental by Greek coins, architecture, hippodamian plan, figurines, and cult (Tel Dor). In Syria, the colonizing Macedonians (Hippodamian plan in Damascus and Dura Europas in the desert) and strong Seleucid influence hastened the acculturation process. In the south, near the coast, Maresha’s tombs displayed Greek art (the Panathenaic of Athens), and, gradually, even the inward looking religious communities in the central hills (Samaria /Jerusalem) showed imported Aegean wares and wine amphoras in the local assemblages. The Decapolis cities in Transjordan were founded. Variability in cultural adaptation is manifest in a comparison of the Hellenized Jewish Hasmoneans (Jericho palace; ‘Iraq el-‘Amir estate) and the Jewish Community of Qumran, which exhibits no evidence for acculturation. A recent study of the site and cave pottery gives credence to the correlation between the site of Qumran and the cave scrolls (Dead Sea Scrolls) and, probably, the Essenes. Recently released to the public domain, the scrolls remain essential for both Judaism and Christianity.

Roman Period

The cultural impact accelerated from 63 BCE - CE 332 as Rome tied the Levant to the rest of the Empire, politically, economically, and militarily, effecting a further transformation (Romanization). In CE 135, with subjugation (first and second Jewish Revolts) and annexation (Nabataea) accomplished, the Romans constructed the Via Nova Trajiana between ‘Aqaba and Bostra (with links to Palmyra and Dura Europas). This secured the Arabian spice trade and brought great prosperity to the Decapolis cities. The Via Maris linked Alexandria to Antioch. Roman milestones are visible reminders of imperial might aimed at controlling trade and facilitating troop movement. Military might is confirmed by excavation of sites like Aila, Udruh, Lejun, Umm el-Jimal, Bostra, Palmyra, Dura Europas, which guarded the frontier (the Limes Arabicus). Military camps and siege ramp at Masada (destroyed in CE 73) are a somber witness to the consequences of revolt under empire.

Urbanization Cities, built to the specification of classical convention, vividly epitomized Romaniza-tion. An early square military plan of intersecting cardo and decumanus (Beirut, Jerusalem-Aelia Capitolina, Baalbek, Bostra) evolved into an elaborate plan of colonnaded streets, triumphal arches, and central tetrapylon (Palmyra, Jerash, Petra, Apamaea, Beth-Shan Scythopolis, etc). It began early with King Herod’s (43-46 BCE) construction of a harbor city (Caesarea) and lavish building activity (Herodium, Masada, Machareus, Jericho, Jerusalem).

Local Traditions Within Greco-Roman style, an oriental (Syrian/Parthian) tradition is perceptible in Palmyra’s architecture (Temple of Bel), sculpture (frontal), and inscriptions (Aramaic, not Greek). A Nabataean style (e. g., distinctive capitals, eggshell thin pottery in floral designs) is discernible as early as 25 BCE. New excavations in the Civic Center at Petra have now uncovered ‘elephant’ capitals in the Great Temple and a contiguous pool and garden, indicative of a sophisticated hydraulic system. Exceptional isolated sanctuaries at Seela (Syria) and Tannur (the Hauran), but few evidences of residences are a continuing enigma. A Jewish aniconic tradition is likewise distinctive, evident in the CE 70 destruction of Jerusalem, where villas of Hellenized Jews were lavish, but included no idols in mosaics and frescoes. There also were numerous miqvaot for ritual purity.

Byzantine Period

Another cultural wave (Christianization) washed over the Levant with the Byzantine Period (elsewhere Late Roman or Late Antiquity), c. 324-638. Some 500 churches attest to the dramatic religious transformation of the region evident from Sinai (St. Catherine’s) to Jerusalem (Church of the Holy Sepulchre) to northwest Syria (Qal‘at Simon) to the Euphrates (Dura Europas). Of particular note, a cache of Greek papyri was recently recovered in the Petra Church, and possibly the earliest church (fourth century) was found at Aila.

An excellent example of the intercivilizational dynamic at work is visible in the adaptability of Hellenized Jews to allow figural art in synagogues, such as the zodiac with the god Helios (Beth-Alpha), frescoes of biblical figures (Dura Europas) and pagan elements in funerary sculpture (Beth-Shearim). Such decorative arts, permissible at the time due to a liberal interpretation of the second commandment against idols, represent an accommodation to Hellenism. An early example (third century) from the Jewish, but very Hellenized city of Sepphoris may be seen in the Dionysus Villa, named for its frescoes and figural mosaics.

In 638 the era of Muslim dominance began yet a further new chapter in the Levant that would once again utterly transform the region.

See also: Africa, North: Egypt, Pharaonic; Animal Domestication; Asia, West: Mesopotamia, Sumer, and Akkad; Phoenicia; Roman Eastern Colonies; Southern Levant, Bronze Age Metal Production and Utilization; Southern Levant, Chalcolithic Cultures; Biblical Archaeology; Civilization and Urbanism, Rise of; Europe, South: Greece; Greek Colonies; Plant Domestication; Political Complexity, Rise of.