The momentum of global fan culture is exemplified by the accelerating interest in Japanese animation, or anime (p. 645). During the 1960s, Japanese companies began selling original anime television programs to overseas channels. Children throughout the world grew up adoring Atom Boy, Speed Racer, and Gigantor. Fan clubs sprang up in the late 1970s. The community expanded rapidly with the coming of videotape, allowing fans to dub shows off-air Or to copy tapes from Japan. Fans began studying Japanese in order to understand the dialogue, and some created their own subtitled versions. From the United States and England, anime fever spread to Europe, with one French television channel programming anime heavily. Because Japanese studios turned out 250 hours of anime each year, the fan base had plenty to look forward to.
The feature films Akira and My Neighbor Totoro, released in western theaters in the early 1990s, brought anime into the mainstream. Although fan piracy continued, legitimate companies began distributing dubbed and subtitled tapes. Video rental chains began to include anime sections. Newsletters and ’zines were replaced by reference books and glossy magazines like Protoculture Addicts (first published in 1988). The fans migrated to the Web, and soon hundreds of sites offered pictures, essays, streaming video, music, chatrooms, and online superstores. Fans were spread throughout Asia (where imported anime often stifled the development of local animation), Europe, and
South America. With international audiences for the robots in the Gundam series and the team of fighting schoolgirls in Sailor Moon, anime, like the Hollywood megapic, had become a global cinematic form. One distributor called it “the Punk rock of the 1990s” (quoted in Helen McCarthy, “The Development of the Japanese Animation Audience in the United Kingdom and France,” in John A. Lent, ed., Animation in Asia and the Pacific [London: John Libbey, 2001], p. 77).
AUTEURS ON THE WEB
One prototype of Internet filmmaking was launched in spring of 2001, when BMW announced “The Hire,” a collection of five brief digital films shown exclusively online at bmwfilms. com. The films were made by John Franken-heimer (The Manchurian Candidate), Ang Lee (Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon), Wong Kar-wai (Chungking Express), Guy Ritchie (Snatch), and Alejandro Gonzalez Ifiar-ritu (Amores perros). Each spot cost about $2 million, becoming on a per-minute basis the most expensive films most of the directors had made. BMWs featured prominently in each plot, but the company claimed that these were not commercials but rather “short films” with true plots. Lee showed a chase to carry a young Buddhist lama to sanctuary, while Wong explored hints of an illicit love affair. “The Hire” suggested that the Web might provide a convenient showcase for film sketches that would have no other venue.
REFERENCES
1. Michael Eisner, with Tony Schwartz, Work in Progress (New York: Random House, 1998), p. 238.
2. Variety (13-19 February 1995): 1.
3. Quoted in Stig Bjorkman, “Preface,” in Lars von Trier, Breaking the Waves (London: Faber and Faber, 1996),
P. 8.
4. The Dogme 95 manifesto can be found at www. dogme95 .dk.
5. Quoted in Romaine Johais, “Zydogmatique,” Cine-astes 1 (October-December 2000): 32.
6. Quoted in Richard Kelly, The Name of This Book is Dogme 95 (London: Faber and Faber, 2000), p. 107.
7. Pico Iyer, The Global Soul: Jet Lag, Shopping Malls, and the Search for Home (New York: Knopf, 2000), p. 93.
8. Kirby Dick, quoted in Holly Willis, “Indie Influence,” in Steven Gaydos, ed., The Variety Guide to Film Festivals (New York: Perigee, 1998), p. 27.
9. Quoted in “Screen to Shining Screen,” Variety (24-30 August 1998): 51.
10. Henry Jenkins, Textual Poachers: Television Fans and Participatory Culture (New York: Routledge, 1992).
11. Quoted in Shari Roman, Digital Babylon: Hollywood, Indiewood, and Dogme 95 (Hollywood, CA: iFilm, 2001), p. 36.
12. Godfrey Cheshire, “The Death of Film/The Decay of Cinema,” Www. nypress. com/coll. cfm? contencid= 243.
FURTHER READING
Billups, Scott. Digital Moviemaking: The Filmmaker’s Guide to the 21st Century. Hollywood, CA: Michael Wiese, 2001.
Bjorkman, Stig. Lars von Trier: Entretiens. Paris: Cahiers du Cinema, 2001.
Castells, Manuel. The Rise of the Networked Society. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
Dubet, Eric. Economie du cinema europeen: de linterven-tionnisme a I’action entrepreneuriale. Paris: L'Harmat-tan, 2000.
Held, David, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt, and Jonathan Perraton. Global Transformations: Politics, Economics, and Culture. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999.
Hjort, Mette and Scott MacKenzie, ed. Purity and Provocation: Dogme 95. London: BFI, 2002.
Hoskins, Colin, Stuart McFadyen, and Adam Finn. Global Television and Film: An Introduction to the Economics of the Business. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Klein, Naomi. No Logo. Hammersmith: HarperCollins, 2000.
Knowles, Harry, with Paul Cullum and Mark Ebner. Ain’t It Cool? Hollywood’s Redheaded Stepchild Speaks Out. New York: Warner, 2002.
Miller, Toby, Nitin Govil, John McMurna, and Richard Maxwell. Global Hollywood. London: British Film Institute, 2001.
Moran, Albert, ed. Film Policy: International, National, and Regional Perspectives. London: Routledge, 1996.
Naficy, Hamid. An Accented Cinema: Exilic and Diasporic Filmmaking. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001.
Tombs, Pete. Mondo Macabro: Weird and Wonderful Cinema Around the World. New York: St. Martin’s, 1998.
Turan, Kenneth. Sundance to Sarajevo: Film Festivals and the World They Made. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002.
Wasko, Janet. Understanding Disney: The Manufacture of Fantasy. Cambridge: Polity, 2001.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
This is a select bibliography, emphasizing book-length studies and special issues of journals. Most of the works listed are comprehensible to the nonspecialist. Each chapter’s “Notes and Queries” and “Further Reading” sections supply additional bibliographical information about particular topics.
General Reference Works
Under the editorship of Michael Singer, Lone Eagle Publishing (Los Angeles, California) publishes a series of reference books compiling information on directors, screenwriters, film composers, and other creative personnel. The directors volume is updated annually.
The American Film Institute Catalogue: Feature Films,
1911-1920. 2 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
The American Film Institute Catalogue: Feature Films, 1921-1930. 2 vols. New York: Bowker, 1971.
The American Film Institute Catalogue: Feature Films, 1931-1940. 3 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
The American Film Institute Catalogue: Feature Films, 1941-1950. 3 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.
The American Film Institute Catalogue: Film Beginnings, 1883-1910. 2 vols. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1995. Atkins, Robert. Artspeak: A Guide to Contemporary Ideas, Movements, and Buzzwords. New York: Abbeville, 1989.
Barnard, Timothy, and Peter Rist, eds. South American Cinema: A Critical Bibliography 1915-1994. Austin: " University of Texas Press, 1998.
Caslavsky, Karel. “American Comedy Series: Filmographies 1914-1930.” Griffithiana 51/52 (October 1994): 9-169.
Charles, John. The Hong Kong Filmography, 1977-1997.
Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2000.
Cherchi Usai, Paolo, ed. The Griffith Project. 5 vols to date. London: British Film Institute, 1999-2001. Clements, Jonathan, and Helen McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia: A Guide to Japanese Animation Since 1917. Berkeley: Stone Bridge, 2001.
Cowie, Peter, ed. International Film Guide. London: Tantivy; later, Variety, Inc., 1964-present.
Elsaesser, Thomas, and Michael Wedel, eds. The BFI Companion to German Cinema. London: British Film Institute, 1999.
The Film Daily Yearbook of Motion Pictures (Initially Wid’s Year Book). New York: Film Daily, 1918-1969.
The Film/Literature Index. Albany: Filmdex, 1973-present.
Gerlach, John, C., and Lana Gerlach. The Critical Index: A Bibliography of Articles on Film in English, 19461973, Arranged by Names and Topics. New York: Teachers College Press, 1974.
Gifford, Denis. The British Film Catalogue 1895-1985: A Reference Guide. Newton Abbott, England: David & Charles, 1986.
Houston, Penelope. Keepers of the Frame: The Film Archives. London: British Film Institute, 1994.
The International Index ofFilm Periodicals. Brussels: International Federation of Film Archives, 1972-present.
Jihua, Cheng, Li Shaobai, and Xing Zuwen. “Chinese Cinema: Catalogue of Films, 1905-1937.” Griffithiana 54 (October 1995): 4-91.
Katz, Ephriam. The Film Encyclopedia. New York: Crowell, 1979.
Konigsberg, Ira. The Complete Film Dictionary. New York: New American Library, 1987.
Lauritzen, Einar, and Gunnar Lundquist. American Film-Index 1908-1915. Stockholm: Film-Index, 1976.
-. American Film-Index 1916-1920. Stockholm:
Film-Index, 1984.
Lyon, Christopher. The International Dictionary ofFilms and Filmmakers. 4 vols. Chicago: St. James Press, 1984.
MacCann, Richard Dyer, and Edward S. Perry. The New Film Index: A Bibliography of Magazine Articles in English, 1930-1970. New York: Dutton, 1975.
The Motion Picture Almanac. New York: Quigley, 1933-present.
Passek, Jean-Loup, ed. Dictionnaire du cinema. 2nd ed. Paris: Larousse, 1991.
Plazola, Luis Trelles, South American Cinema: Dictionary of Film Makers. Rio Pideras: University of Puerto Rico, 1989.
Rajadhyaksha, Ashish, and Paul Willeman, eds. Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema. 2nd ed. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1999.
Russell, Sharon A. Guide to African Cinema. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998.
Taylor, Richard, Nancy Wood, Julian Graffy, and Dina Iordanova. The BFI Companion to Eastern European and Russian Cinema. London: British Film Institute, 2000.
Unterburger, Amy L. The St. James Women Filmmakers Encyclopedia. Farmington Hills, MI: Visible Ink, 1999.
Vincendeau, Ginette, ed. Encyclopedia ofEuropean Cinema. New York: Facts on File, 1995.
Vincent, Carl. General Bibliography ofMotion Pictures. Rome: Ateneo, 1953.
Workers of the Writers’ Program of the Work Projects Administration in the City of New York. The Film Index: A Bibliography. Vol. 1: The Film as Art. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1941. Vol. 2: The Film as Industry. White Plains, NY: Kraus, 1985. Vol. 3: Film in Society. White Plains, NY: Kraus, 1985.
Historiography
Allen, Robert C., and Douglas Gomery. Film History: Theory and Practice. New York: Random House, 1985. Bordwell, David. On the History ofFilm Style. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997.
Cherchi Usai, Paolo. Silent Cinema: An Introduction. London: British Film Institute, 2000.
-, ed. “Film Preservation and Film Scholarship.” Special issue of Film History 7, no. 3 (autumn 1995). Lagny, Michele. De Thistoire: Methode historique et histoire du cinema. Paris: Colin, 1992.
Pierce, David. “The Legion of the Condemned: Why American Silent Films Perished.” Film History 9, no. 1 (1997): 3-22.
Sadoul, Georges. “Materiaux, methodes et problemes de l’histoire du cinema.” In his Histoire du cinema mondial des origines a nos jours. 9th ed. Paris: Flammar-ion, 1972, pp. v-xxix.
Sklar, Robert, and Charles Musser, eds. Resisting Images: Essays on Cinema and History. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990.
World Cinema Surveys
Kindem, Gorham, ed. The International Movie Industry.
Southern Illinois University Press, 2000.
Luhr, William, ed. World Cinema since 1945. New York: Ungar, 1987.
Pratt, George, ed. Spellbound in Darkness: A History of the Silent Film. Rev. ed. Greenwich, CT: New York Graphic Society, 1973.
Sadoul, Georges. Histoire du cinema mondial des origines a nos jours. 9th ed. Paris: Flammarion, 1972.
-. Histoire generale du cinema. Vols. 1-4, 6. Paris:
Denoel, 1946-1975.
Thompson, Kristin. Exporting Entertainment: America in the World Film Market, 1907-1934. London: British Film Institute, 1985.
Regional and National Cinema Surveys
Apart from the works listed here, an excellent set of national cinema histories has been published in the French series “Cinema/pluriel” by the Pompidou Center under the general editorship of Jean-Loup Passek. As of 2001, volumes have been devoted to Armenia, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Soviet Central Asia, China, Cuba, Czech Republic/Slovakia, Denmark, the Republic of Georgia, Germany (1913-1933), Hungary, India, Italy (1905-1945), Korea, Mexico, Poland, Portugal, Russia and the USSR, Scandinavia, Turkey, and Yugoslavia.
Aberdeen, J. A. Hollywood Renegades: The Society of Independent Motion Picture Producers. Los Angeles: Cobblestone Entertainment, 2000.
Anderson, John. Sundancing: Hanging and Listening In at America’s Most Important Film Festival. New York: Spike, 2000.
Anderson, Joseph, and Donald Richie. The Japanese Film: Art and Industry. Expanded ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982.
Andrew, Dudley. Mists ofRegret: Culture and Sensibility in Classic French Film. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995.
Armes, Roy. Third World Filmmaking and the West. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
Bachy, Victor. Pour une histoire du cinema africain. Brussels: OCIC, 1987.
Balio, Tino, ed. The American Film Industry. 2nd ed. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985.
-. Hollywood in the Age of Television. Boston:
Unwin Hyman, 1990.
Balski, Grzegorz. Directory of Eastern European FilmMakers and Films, 1945-1991. London: Flicks, 1992.
Banerjee, Shampa, and Anil Srivastava. One Hundred Indian Feature Films: An Annotated Filmography. New York: Garland, 1988.
Barbas, Samantha. Movie Crazy: Fans, Stars, and the Cult of Celebrity. New York: Palgrave, 2001.
Barnouw, Erik, and S. Krishnaswamy. Indian Film. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980.
Barr, Charles, ed. All Our Yesterdays: 40 Years ofBritish Cinema. London: British Film Institute, 1986.
Bergan, Ronald. The United Artists Story. New York: Crown, 1986.
Bernardi, Joanne. Writing in Light: The Silent Scenario and the Japanese Pure Film Movement. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2001.
Bertellini, Giorgio, ed. “Early Italian Cinema.” Special issue of Film History 11, no. 3 (2000).
Billard, Pierre. L’Age classique du cinema fran;ais: Du cinema parlant a la Nouvelle Vague. Paris: Flammarion, 1995.
Bock, Audie. Japanese Film Directors. New York: Kodan-sha, 1978.
Bondanella, Peter. Italian Cinema from Neorealism to the Present. New York: Ungar, 1983.
Bonnell, Rene. Le Cinema exploite. Paris: Seuil, 1978.
Bordwell, David, Janet Staiger, and Kristin Thompson. The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960. New York: Columbia University Press, 1985.
Brunet, Patrick J. Les Outils de Timage: Du cine-matographe au camescope. Montreal: Universite de Montreal, 1992.
Buehrer, Beverly Bare. Japanese Films: A Filmography and Commentary, 1921-1989. Jefferson, NC: McFarland,
1990.
Burch, Noel. To the Distant Observer: Form and Meaning in the Japanese Cinema. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978.
Chabria, Suresh, ed. Light of Asia: Indian Silent Cinema
1912-1934. Pordenone: Le Giornate del Cinema Muto, and New Delhi: National Film Archive of India, 1994.
Chakravarty, Sumitra S. National Identity in Indian Popular Cinema, 1947-1987. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1993.
Chanan, Michael. Chilean Cinema. London: British Film Institute, 1974.
-. The Cuban Image. London: British Film Institute,
1985.
-. The Dream That Kicks: The Prehistory and Early
Years of Cinema in Britain 2nd. ed. London/New York: Routledge, 1996.
“Les Cinemas arabes et Grand Maghreb.” CinemAction 43 (1987).
Clark, Paul. Chinese Cinema: Culture and Politics since 1949. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
Courtade, Fran<;:is. Les Maledictions du cinema franr;ais: Une Histoire du cinema franr;ais parlant (1928-1978). Paris: Moreau, 1978.
Cowie, Peter. Swedish Cinema. London: Tantivy, 1966.
Crisp, Colin. The Classic French Cinema, 1930-1960. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993.
Curran, James, and Vincent Porter, eds. British Cinema History. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1983.
Dabashi, Hamid. Close-Up: Iranian Cinema Past, Present and Future. London: Verso, 2001.
Davay, Paul. Cinema de Belgique. Gembloux: Duculot, 1973.
Dennis, Jonathan, and Jan Beringa, eds. Film in Aotearoa New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand: Victoria University Press, 1992.
Dermody, Susan, and Elizabeth Jacka. The Screening of Australia: Anatomy of a National Cinema. 2 vols. Sydney: Currency, 1988.
Diawara, Manthia. African Cinema: Politics and Culture. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992.
Dick, Bernard R City ofDreams: The Making and Remaking of Universal Pictures. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1997.
Dickinson, Margaret, and Sarah Street. Cinema and State: The Film Industry and the British Government 1927-1984. London: British Film Institute, 1985.
D’Lugo, Marvin. Guide to the Cinema ofSpain. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1997.
Dyer, Richard, and Ginette Vincendeau, eds. Popular European Cinema. London: Routledge, 1992.
Eames, John Douglas. The MGM Story. New York: Crown, 1976.
-. The Paramount Story. New York: Crown, 1985.
Elsaesser, Thomas. New German Cinema: A History. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989.
-, ed. A Second Life: German Cinema’s First Decades.
Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam Press, 1996.
Feldman, Seth. Take Two: A Tribute to Film in Canada. Toronto: Irwin, 1984.
Feldman, Seth, and Joyce Nelson, eds. Canadian Film Reader. Toronto: Peter Mastin, 1977.
FEPACL Africa and the Centenary of Cinema. Paris: Presence Africain, 1995.
Finler, Joel W. The Hollywood Story. New York: Crown, 1988.
Frodon, Jean-Michel. L’Age moderne du cinema franr;ais: De la Nouvelle Vague a nos jours. Paris: Flammarion, 1995.
Gokulsing, K. Mott, and Wimal Dissayanke. Indian Popular Cinema: A Narrative of Cultural Change. Stoke-on-Trent: Haffordshire, 1998.
Gomery, Douglas. The Hollywood Studio System. New York: St. Martin’s, 1986.
-. Shared Pleasures: A History ofMovie Presentation
In the United States. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992.
Haghighat, Mamad. Histoire du cinema iranien. Paris: Bi-bliotheque public d’information, 1999.
Hanan, David. Film in South East Asia: View from the Region. Manila: SEAPAVAA, 2001.
Hayward, Susan, and Ginette Vincendeau, eds. French Film: Texts and Contexts. London: Routledge, 1990.
Hershfield, Juanne, and David R. Maciel. Mexico’s Cinema: A Century of Films and Filmmakers. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1999.
Hibon, Daniele, ed. Cinemas d’Israel. Paris: Galerie Na-tionale du Jeu de Paume, 1992.
Higginbotham, Virginia. Spanish Film under Franco. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1988.
Hirschorn, Clive. The Columbia Story. New York: Crown, 1990.
-. The Universal Story. New York: Crown, 1983.
-. The ’Warner Bros. Story. New York: Crown, 1979.
Hollis, Richard, and Brian Sibley. The Disney Studio Story. New York: Crown, 1988.
Issari, M. Ali. Cinema in Iran, 1900-1979. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1989.
Jarvie, Ian. Hollywood’s Overseas Campaign: The North Atlantic Movie Trade, 1920-1950. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Jewell, Richard B., and Vernon Harbin. The RKO Story. New York: Arlington House, 1982.
Johnson, Randal. The Film Industry in Brazil: Culture and the State. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987.
Johnson, Randal, and Robert Starn, eds. Brazilian Cinema. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982.
Juin, Rikhab Dass. The Economic Aspects of the Film Industry in India. Delhi: Atma Ram, 1960.
Kabir, Nasreen Munni. Bollywood: The Indian Cinema Story. London: Channel 4, 2001.
Kenez, Peter. Cinema and Soviet Society: From the Revolution to the Death of Stalin. London/New York: I. B. Tauris, 2001.
King, John, Magical Reels: A History of Cinema in Latin America. London: Verso, 1990.
King, John, and Nissa Torrents, eds. The Garden ofFork-ing Paths: Argentine Cinema. London: British Film Institute, 1987.
“Latin American Cinema.” Iris 13 (summer 1991).
Lawton, Anna, ed. The Red Screen: Politics, Society, Art in Soviet Cinema. New York: Routledge, 1992.
Lent, John A., ed. The Asian Film Industry. London: Helm, 1990.
Leprohon, Pierre. The Italian Cinema. Trans. Roger Greaves and Oliver Stallybrass. New York: Praeger, 1972.
Lever, Yves. Histoire generale du cinema au Quebec. Montreal: Boreal, 1988.
Leyda, Jay. Kino: A History of the Russian and Soviet Film. 3rd ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983.
Liehm, Mira. Passion and Defiance: Film in Italy from 1942 to the Present. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.
Liehm, Mira, and Antonin J. Liehm. The Most Important Art: Soviet and Eastern European Film after 1945. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977.
“Lightning Images: Societe Eclair 1907-1920.” Special issue of Griffithiana 47 (May 1993).
Litman, Barry R. The Motion Picture Mega-Industry. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1998.
Low, Rachel. The History ofthe British Film. 6 vols. London: Allen & Unwin, 1948-1979.
Marcus, Millicent. Italian Film in the Light ofNeorealism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986.
Merritt, Greg. Celluloid Mavericks: A History ofAmeri-can Independent Film. New York: Thunder’s Month Press, 2000.
Michalek, Boleslaw, and Frank Turaj. The Modern Cinema of Poland. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988.
Mora, Carl J. Mexican Cinema: Reflections ofa Society 1896-1988. Berkeley: University of California Press,
1989.
Neale, Steve, and Murray Smith, eds. Contemporary Hollywood Cinema. New York: Routledge, 1998.
Neergaard, Ebbe. The Story ofDanish Film. Copenhagen: The Danish Institute, 1963.
Nemeskurty, Istvan. A Short History of the Hungarian Cinema. Budapest: Corvina, 1980.
Noletti, Arthur, and David Desser, eds. Reframing Japanese Cinema: Authorship, Genre, History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992.
Park, James. British Cinema: The Lights That Failed. London: Batsford, 1990.
Predal, Rene. Le Cinema frant;ais depuis 1945. Paris: Nathan, 1991.
-. 50 ans de cinema frant;ais. Paris: Nathan, 1996.
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Ramachandran, T. M., ed. Seventy Years ofIndian Cinema (1913-1983). Bombay: Cinema India, 1983.
Rayns, Tony, ed. Eiga: 25 Years ofJapanese Cinema. Edinburgh: Film Festival, 1984.
Rayns, Tony, and Scott Meek, eds. Electric Shadows: 45 Years of Chinese Cinema. London: British Film Institute, 1980.
Reid, Nicholas. A Decade ofNew Zealand Film: Sleeping Dogs to Came a Hot Friday. Dunedin: John McIndoe,
1986.
Rimberg, John David. The Motion Picture in the Soviet Union: 1918-1952. New York: Arno, 1973.
Rist, Peter Harry. Guide to the Cinema(s) of Canada. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2001.
Roberts, Graham. Forward Soviet! History and Nonfiction Film in the USSR. London: Tauris, 1999.
Rockett, Kevin, Luke Gibbons, and John Hill. Cinema and Ireland. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1988.
Rose, Frank. The Agency: William Morris and the Hidden History of Show Business. New York: HarperCollins, 1995.
Russell, Sharon A. Guide to African Cinema. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1998.
Sabria, Jean-Charles. Cinema frant;ais: Les Annees 50. Paris: Pompidou Center, 1987.
Schmidt, Nancy J. Sub-Saharan African Films and Filmmakers. Bloomington: Indiana University African Studies Program, 1986.
Schnitman, Jorge A. Film Industries in Latin America: Dependency and Development. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1984.
Segrave, Kerry. American Films Abroad: Hollywood’s Domination of the World’s Movie Screens. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1997.
Shiri, Keith, ed. Directory of African Film-Makers and Films. London: Flicks, 1992.
Shirley, Graham, and Brian Adams. Australian Cinema: The First Eighty Years. Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1983.
Shohat, Ella. Israeli Cinema: East/West and the Politics of Representation. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989.
Silberman, Marc. German Cinema: Texts in Context. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1995.
Slater, Thomas J. Handbook ofSoviet and East European Films and Filmmakers. New York: Greenwood, 1992.
Slattery, Margaret, ed. Modern Days, Ancient Nights: Thirty Years of African Filmmaking. New York: Film Society of Lincoln Center, 1993.
Sobahski, Oscar. Polish Feature Films: A Reference Guide 1945-1985. West Cornwall, CT: Locust Hill, 1987.
Solomon, Aubrey. Twentieth Century-Fox: A Corporate and Financial History. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1988.
Street, Sarah. British National Cinema. London/New York: Routledge, 1997.
Taylor, Richard, and Ian Christie, eds. The Film Factory: Russian and Soviet Cinema in Documents 1896-1939. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988.
Teo, Stephen. Hong Kong Cinema: The Extra Dimension. London: British Film Institute, 1997.
Thomas, Tony, and Aubrey Solomon. The Films of 20th Century-Fox. Secaucus, NJ: Citadel, 1979.
Thompson, Kristin. “Early Alternatives to the Hollywood Mode of Production: Implications for Europe’s Avant-gardes.” Film History 5, no. 4 (December 1993): 386-404.
Thoraval, Yves. The Cinemas of India (1896-2000). New Delhi: Macmillan, 2000.
-. Regards sur le cinema egyptien. Paris: L’Harmat-
Tan, 1988.
“Le Tiers monde en films” CinemAction special number (1981).
Princeton University Press, 1988.
Brakhage, Stan. Film at Wit’s End: Eight Avant-Garde Filmmakers. Kingston, NY: McPherson, 1989.
Cazals, Patrick. Serguei Paradjanov. Paris: Cahiers du Cinema, 1993.
Cerisuelo, Marc. Jean-Luc Godard. Paris: Lherminier, 1989. Custen, George F. Twentieth Century’s Fox: Darryl F. Zanuck and the Culture of Hollywood. New York: BasicBooks, 1997.
Ukadike, Nwachukwu Frank. Black African Cinema.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. Vasudev, Aruna, ed. Frames of Mind: Reflections on Indian Cinema. New Delhi: UBS, 1995.
Vasudev, Aruna, and Philippe Leuglet, eds. Indian Cinema Superbazaar. Delhi: Vikas, 1983.
Vincendeau, Ginette. Stars and Stardom in French Cinema.
London/New York: Continuum, 2000.
Wayne, Mike. Political Film: The Dialectics of Third Cinema. London: Pluto Press, 200l.
Willemen, Paul, and Behroze Gardhy, eds. Indian Cinema.
London: British Film Institute, 1982.
Williams, Alan. Republic of Images: A History ofFrench Filmmaking. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992.
Zglinicki, R V. Der weg des Films. 2 vols. Reprint. Hilde-sheim: Olms Press, 1979.
Figures and Personalities
These sources pertain to individuals whose activities are discussed in several chapters of this book. For other major figures, see “Further Readings” sections in each chapter.
G. K. Hall (Boston) publishes a useful series of annotated reference guides to major filmmakers.
Aranda, Francisco. Luis Buiiuel: A Critical Biography. Trans. and ed., David Robinson. London: Secker and Warburg, 1975.
Arnaud, Phillippe, ed. Sacha Guitry, cineaste. Crisnee, Belgium: Editions Yellow Now, 1993.
Aumont, Jacques, ed. Jean Epstein: Cineaste, poete, philosophe. Paris: Cinematheque fran<;aise, 1998. Bachy, Victor. Alice Guy-Blache (1873-1968): La premiere femme cineaste du monde. Perpignan: Institut Jean Vigo, 1993.
Beauchamp, Cari. Without Lying Down: Frances Marion and the Powerful Women of Early Hollywood. New York: Scribner’s, 1997.
Bellour, Raymond, ed. Jean-Luc Godard: Son + Image.
New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1992.
Bendazzi, Gianalbert, ed. Alexeieff: Itinerary of a Master. Paris: Dreamland, 2001.
Bertin, Celia. Jean Renoir: A Life in Pictures. Trans. Mireille Muellner and Leonard Muellner. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
Bordwell, David. The Cinema ofEisenstein. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
-. The Films of Carl-Theodor Dreyer. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981.
Ozu and the Poetics of Cinema. Princeton, NJ:
Danvers, Louis, and Charles Tatum, Jr. Nagisa Oshima. Paris: Cahiers du Cinema, 1986.
Dumont, Herve. Frank Borzage: Sarastro a Hollywood. Milan: Mazzotta, 1993.
Durgnat, Raymond, and Scott Simmon. King Vidor, American. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
Eyman, Scott. Ernst Lubitsch: Laughter in Paradise. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993.
Fraigneau, Andre. Cocteau on the Film: Conversations with Jean Cocteau. Trans. Vera Traill. New York: Dover, 1972.
Gallagher, Tag. John Ford: The Man and His Films. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986.
Goodwin, James. Eisenstein, Cinema, and History. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993.
Hardt, Ursula. From Caligari to California: Eric Pommer’s Life in the International Film Wars. Providence/Oxford: Berghahn Books, 1996.
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GLOSSARY
Academy ratio In the silent era, the film frame was customarily I'h times as wide as it was high (1.33:1). When a sound track was added, however, the image became nearly square. The 1.33:1 silent aspect ratio was standardized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in 1932. (In practice, the sound-film ratio was closer to 1.37:1.) actualities An early term for documentary films. anamorphic lens A lens for making widescreen films using regular Academy ratio frame size. The camera lens takes in a wide field of view and squeezes it onto the frame, and a similar projector lens unsqueezes the image onto a wide theater screen. The most famous anamorphic widescreen processes are CinemaScope and Panavision. animation Any process whereby artificial movement is created by photographing a series of drawings (see cel animation), objects, or computer images one by one. Small changes in position, recorded frame by frame, create the illusion of movement.
Art cinema (1) A critical term used to describe films that, while made within commercial circumstances, take an approach to form and style influenced by modernist trends (see modernism) within “high art” and that offer an alternative to mainstream entertainment. (2) A term used in the U. S. film industry to describe imported films of interest principally to upper-middle-class, college-educated audiences. artisanal production The process in which a filmmaker, producer, and crew devote their energy to making a single film, often with no expectation of collaborating on another project in the future. This is in contrast to the mass production and division of labor of studio production. aspect ratio The relationship of the frame’s width to its height. The standard international ratio was 1.33:1 until the early 1950s, when widescreen formats became more common.
Auteur The presumed or actual “author” of a film, usually identified as the director. The term is also sometimes used in an evaluative sense to distinguish good filmmakers (auteurs) from bad ones. Identifying the director as the film’s “author” and evaluating the film as the work of an auteur has a long history, but it became a prominent issue after the 1940s, particularly in French - and English-language film criticism.
Avance sur recettes (“advance on receipts”) A government policy of loaning money to a film project on the basis of anticipated ticket sales. The system came into use in France after World War II and provided a model for other countries’ film-financing policies.
Axis of action In the continuity editing system, the imaginary line that passes from side to side through the main actors, defining the spatial relations of all the elements of the scene as being to the right or left. The camera is not supposed to cross the axis at a cut and thus reverse those spatial relations. The axis is also called the “ 180-degree line” (see 180-degree system).
Backlighting Illumination cast onto the figures in the scene from the side opposite the camera, usually creating a thin outline of light on the figures’ edge.
Block booking An arrangement in which the distributor forces exhibitors to rent several films in order to get the most desirable ones. Common in the U. S. film industry after the 1910s, the practice was declared illegal in the “Paramount decision” of 1948.
Camera angle The position of the frame in relation to the subject it shows: above it, looking down (a high angle); horizontal, on the same level (a straight-on angle); looking up (a low angle).
Camera movement The onscreen impression that the framing is changing with respect to the scene being photographed. This is usually caused by the camera’s being physically moved, but it may also be caused by a zoom lens or certain special effects. See also crane shot, pan, tilt, tracking shot.
Canted framing A view in which the frame is not level; either the right or the left side is lower, causing objects in the scene to appear tipped.
Cel animation Animation that uses a series of drawings on pieces of celluloid, called “cels” for short. Slight changes between the drawings combine to create an illusion of movement.
Cinematography A general term for all the manipulations of the film strip by the camera in the shooting phase and by the laboratory in the developing phase. close-up A framing in which the scale of the object shown is relatively large. Most commonly, a close-up shows a person’s head from the neck up, or a medium-size object. closure The degree to which the ending of a narrative film reveals the effects of all the causal events and resolves (or “closes off”) all lines of action.
Collage A film style that assembles footage from widely disparate sources, often juxtaposing staged fictional scenes with newsreel, animation, or other sorts of material. Explored by experimental filmmakers such as Joseph Cornell in the 1930s, it became a major resource for the avant-garde and political filmmaking of the 1960s. compilation film A genre of documentary cinema that draws together news footage from various sources in order
To convey a large-scale process, such as a war or a social change. Widely used in government and public-affairs documentaries of the sound era, the compilation film was also subjected to experimental treatment by the French Lettrists and Bruce Conner.
Continuity editing A system of cutting to maintain continuous and clear narrative action. Continuity editing relies upon matching action, screen direction, and figures’ positions from shot to shot. For specific techniques of continuity editing, see axis of action, cut-in, establishing shot, eyeline match, intercutting, match on action, reestablishing shot, screen direction, shot/reverse shot. crane shot A shot in which a change of framing is accomplished by having the camera above the ground and moving up, down, or laterally through the air. crosscutting. See intercutting.
Cut (1) In filmmaking, the joining of two strips of film together with a splice. (2) In the finished film, an instantaneous change from one framing to another. See also jump cut. cut-in An instantaneous shift from a distant framing to a closer view of some portion of the same space. cycle A relatively short-lived fashion for certain subgenres within a genre: e. g., the “adult” Westerns in Hollywood during the 1950s or the films about heroic gangsters in the 1980s Hong Kong cinema.
Dedramatization In narrative filmmaking, the strategy of minimizing suspense, emotional high points, and physical action in favor of low-key character portrayal, temps morts, and an emphasis on surroundings. Commonly used in European art cinema of the post-World War II era, often to explore character psychology, evoke mood, or bring out environmental details.
Deep focus A use of the camera lens and lighting that keeps both the close and distant planes in sharp focus. deep space An arrangement of mise-en-scene elements so that there is a considerable distance between the plane closest to the camera and the one farthest away. Any or all of these planes may be in focus.
Depth of field The measurements of the closest and farthest planes in front of the camera lens between which everything will be in sharp focus. A depth of field from 5 to 16 feet, e. g., would mean everything closer than 5 feet and farther than 16 feet would be out of focus. diegetic sound Any voice, musical passage, or sound effect presented as originating from a source within the film’s world. See also nondiegetic sound.
Diorama A nineteenth-century entertainment in which the spectators sat in a circular room and viewed long transparent paintings that seemed to move as the lighting changed.
Direct sound Music, noise, and speech recorded from the event at the moment of filming; the opposite of postsynchronization. Early sound films and Direct Cinema documentaries emphasized direct sound.
Dissolve A transition between two shots during which the first image gradually disappears while the second image gradually appears. For a moment the two images blend briefly in superimposition.
Distance of framing The apparent distance of the frame from the mise-en-scene elements; also called “camera distance” and “shot scale.” See also close-up, extreme close-up, medium shot.
Distribution One of the three branches of the film industry; the process of supplying films to the places where they will be shown. See also exhibition, production. dolly A camera support with wheels, used in making tracking shots.
Dubbing The process of replacing part or all of the voices on the sound track in order to correct mistakes or rerecord dialogue. See also postsynchronization.
Editing (1) In filmmaking, the task of selecting and joining camera takes. (2) In the finished film, the set of techniques that governs the relations among shots. ellipsis In narrative, the omission of certain scenes or portions of the action.
Elliptical editing Editing that omits portions of the action often with the purpose of startling the viewer or creating questions about what occurred in the missing stretches. establishing shot A shot, usually involving a distant framing, that shows the spatial relations among the important figures, objects and setting in a scene. exhibition One of the three branches of the film industry; the process of showing the finished film to audiences. See also distribution, production.
Experimental cinema Filmmaking that avoids the conventions of mass-entertainment film and seeks to explore unusual aspects of the medium and/or suppressed or taboo subject matter. When experimental films present plots, these are frequently predicted upon dreams or symbolic journeys, but often experimental films avoid narrative form altogether, exploring lyric, associational, descriptive, or other formal means.
Extreme close-up A framing that enlarges a small detail, such as an eye or a line of newsprint. eyeline match A cut obeying the axis of action principle, in which the first shot shows a person looking off in one direction and the second shows a nearby space containing what he or she sees. If the person looks to the left, the following shot should imply that the looker is offscreen right.
Fade (1) Fade-in: A dark screen that gradually brightens as a shot appears. (2) Fade-out: A shot that gradually darkens as the screen goes black. Occasionally fade-outs brighten to pure white or to a color.
Fill light Illumination from a source less bright than the key light, used to soften deep shadows in a scene. See also three-point lighting.
Film noir (“dark film”) A term applied by French critics to a type of American film, usually in the detective and thriller genres, with low-key lighting and a somber mood. Film noir was most prevalent in the 1940s and 1950s, though it was revived occasionally later.
Film stock The strip of material upon which a series of film frames is registered. It consists of a clear base coated on one side with a light-sensitive emulsion. filter A piece of glass or gelatin placed in front of the camera or printer lens to alter the light striking the film in the aperture.
Flashback An alteration of story order in which events occurring in the present are interrupted by the showing of events that took place earlier.
Flashforward An alteration of story order in which the plot presentation moves forward to future events and then returns to the present.
Focal length The distance from the center of the lens to the point at which the light rays meet in sharp focus. The focal length determines the perspective relations of the space represented on the flat screen. See also normal lens, telephoto lens, wide-angle lens.
Focus The degree to which light rays coming from the same part of an object through different parts of the lens converge at the same point on the film frame, creating sharp outlines and distinct textures.
Frame A single image on the strip of film. When a series of frames is projected onto a screen in quick succession, the spectator sees an illusory movement. framing The use of the edges of the film frame to select and to compose what will be visible onscreen. front projection A composite process whereby footage meant to appear as the background of a shot is projected from the front onto a screen. Figures in the foreground are filmed in front of the screen as well. See also rear projection. frontality In staging, the positioning of figures so that they face the viewer.
Gauge The width of the film strip, measured in millimeters. The standard gauges in film history are 8mm, 16mm, 35 mm, and 70mm.
Genres Various types of films that audiences and filmmakers recognize by their recurring conventions. Common genres are horror films, gangster films, and Westerns. graphic match Two successive shots joined so as to create a strong similarity of compositional elements, such as color or shape.
Hand-held camera The use of the camera operator’s body as a camera support, either holding it by hand or using a harness. Seen in some silent films, such as Abel Gance’s Napoleon, but more common in Direct Cinema documentaries and fiction films from the 1960s on. hard lighting Illumination that creates sharp-edge shadows. height of framing The distance of the camera above the ground, regardless of its angle to the horizontal. high-key lighting Illumination that creates comparatively little contrast between light and dark areas of the shot. Shadows are fairly transparent and brightened by fill light. horizontal integration A practice in which a company in one sector of the motion-picture industry acquires or gains control over other companies in that sector. For example,
A production company may expand by purchasing other production firms. See also vertical integration.
Intellectual montage The juxtaposition of a series of images to create an abstract idea not suggested by any one image. Pioneered by Soviet Montage directors, particularly Sergei Eisenstein, it returned to widespread use in experimental cinema and left-wing cinema of the 1960s. intercutting Editing that alternates shots of two or more lines of action occurring in different places, usually simultaneously. Used synonymously with crosscutting. iris A round, moving mask that can (1) close down to end a scene (iris-out) or emphasize a detail or (2) open to begin a scene (iris-in) or reveal more space around a detail.
Jump cut An elliptical cut that appears to be an interruption of a single shot. Either the figures seem to change instantly against a constant background or the background changes instantly while the figures remain constant. See also elliptical editing.
Key light In the three-point lighting system, the brightest illumination coming onto the scene. See also backlighting, fill light.
Linearity In a narrative, the clear motivation of a series of causes and effects that progress without significant digressions, delays, or irrelevant interpolations. long shot A framing in which the scale of the object shown is small. A standing human figure would appear nearly the height of the screen.
Long take A shot that continues for an unusually lengthy time. Rare in silent cinema, the long take became more significant in the 1930s and 1940s, especially as used by Jean Renoir and Orson Welles. It soon became a common technique in films throughout the world. See also plan-sequence. low-key lighting Illumination that creates strong contrast between light and dark areas of the shot, with deep shadows and little fill light.
Majors A term for the most powerful film companies in the U. S. industry. In the 1920s, the Majors were also knows as the “Big Three” and consisted of Paramount-Publix, Loew’s (MGM), and First National. During the 1930s, the Majors (now the “Big Five”) were MGM, Paramount, 20th Century-Fox, Warner Bros., and RKO. Before 1948, the Majors achieved their status because they had a high degree of vertical integration. Today the Majors consist of several production-distribution companies owned by media conglomerates, such as Universal Vivendi and AoL Time-Warner.
Mask An opaque screen placed in the camera or printer that blocks part of the frame and changes the shape of the image. As seen on the screen, most masks are black, although they can be white or colored. See also iris. masking In exhibition, stretches of black fabric that frame the theater screen. Masking may be adjusted according to the aspect ratio of the film to be projected.
Match on action A continuity cut that joins two shots of the same gesture, making it appear to continue uninterrupted. matte shot A type of process shot in which different areas of the image (usually actors and setting) are photographed separately and combined in laboratory work. medium shot A framing in which the scale of the object shown is of moderate size. A human figure seen from the waist up would fill most of the screen.
Minors From the 1920s to the 1950s, significant Hollywood production companies that did not own theaters. Also known as the “Little Three,” the Minors consisted of Universal, Columbia, and United Artists. See also Majors. mise-en-scene All the elements placed in front of the camera to be photographed: the settings and props, lighting, costumes and makeup, and figure behavior. mixing Combining two or more sound tracks by rerecording them onto a single track.
Modernism A broad trend in twentieth-century art and literature emphasizing aesthetic innovation and themes that comment upon contemporary life. Modernist are flaunts difficult, often aggressive or disruptive, forms and styles; it frequently challenges traditional “realistic” art and criticizes mass popular entertainment. Thematically, modernism displays a fascination with technology, city life, and problems of personal identity. It embraces both political critique and spiritual exploration. Expressionism, surrealism, and atonal music are some typical manifestations of modernism. Modernism’s impact has been felt in experimental cinema, art cinema, and some mainstream commercial filmmaking. montage (1) A synonym for editing. (2) An approach to editing developed by the Soviet filmmakers of the 1920s. Soviet Montage emphasizes dynamic, often discontinuous, relationships between shots. It also emphasizes intellectual montage.
Montage sequence A segment of a film that summarizes a topic or compresses a passage of time into brief symbolic or typical images. Frequently dissolves, fades, superimpositions, and wipes are used to link the shots in a montage sequence. motif An element in a film that is repeated in a significant way.
Movement A group of filmmakers working in a common period and place who share some distinctive presumptions about how films should be made. Typically, the films of a movement share formal, stylistic, and thematic features. Some movements, such as French Surrealism of the 1920s, can be seen as fairly unified; others, such as the French New Wave of the late 1950s, are comparatively loose.
Nickelodeon boom Beginning in 1905, a period of rapid expansion in the number of small, inexpensive store-front theaters showing programs of short films. During the 1910s, nickelodeons disappeared as larger theaters were built. nondiegetic sound Sound, such as mood music or a narrator’s commentary, represented as coming from a source outside the world of the narrative (the “diegesis”). normal lens A lens that shows objects without severely exaggerating or reducing the depth of the scene’s planes. In
Theatrical filmmaking, a normal lens is 35mm to 50mm. See also telephoto lens, wide-angle lens.
Oligopoly An economic situation in which a few companies control a market, often cooperating with each other to keep out new firms. In the U. S. film industry after the 1920s, the Majors and the Minors constituted an oligopoly. 180-degree system In the continuity approach to editing, the dictate that the camera should stay on one side of the action to ensure consistent spatial relations between objects to the right and left of the frame. The 180-degree line is the same as the axis of action. See also continuity editing, screen direction.
Overlapping editing Cuts that repeat part or all of an action, thus expanding the duration of the action on screen.
Pan A camera movement in which the camera body swivels to the right or left. The onscreen effect is of scanning the space horizontally.
Pan-and-zoom technique A way of substituting for cutting mto and out of a scene; continuous pans and zooms concentrate attention on significant aspects of a scene. Rossellini pioneered this technique in the late 1950s, and it became widespread during the 1960s. Often the pan-and-zoom technique enables the director to create a long take. See also zoom lens.
Pixillation A form of animation in which three-dimensional objects, often people, are made to move in staccato bursts through the use of stop-action cinematography. plan-sequence (“sequence shot”) A French term for a scene handled in a single shot, usually a long take. point-of-view (POV) shot A shot taken with the camera placed approximately where a character’s eye would be, showing what the character would see. A POV shot is usually preceded or followed by a shot of the character looking. postsynchronization The process of adding sound to images after they have been shot and assembled. This can include dubbing voices, as well as inserting diegetic music or sound effects. Contemporary fiction films are often post-synchronized. The technique is the opposite of direct sound.
Process shot Any shot involving rephotography to combine two or more images into one or to create a special effect; also called “composite shot.” See also front projection, matte shot, rear projection, special effects. production One of the three branches of the film industry; the process of creating a film. See also distribution, exhibition.
Protectionism A government policy that defends national filmmaking from competition by foreign imports. Typical protectionist policies are quotas on the number of films that may be imported or shown, requirements that theater time be set aside for the domestic product, and forms of financial aid to domestic production.
Racking focus Shifting the area of sharp focus from one plane to another during a shot. The effect on the screen is called “ rack focus.” rear projection A technique for combining a foreground action with a background action filmed earlier. The foreground is filmed in a studio, against a screen; the background imagery is projected from behind the screen. The technique is the opposite of front projection. reestablishing shot A return to a view of an entire space after a series of closer shots following the establishing shot. reflexivity A tendency, characteristic of cinematic modernism, to call attention to the fact that the film is an artifact or an illusion. Advocates of reflexivity often suggest that while mainstream cinema encourages the viewer to see the onscreen world as real, a more self-conscious cinema will expose the ways in which movie makers create this effect of reality.
World History
